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THE 

.PRINCIPLES 

OF 

GREEK GRAMMAR; 



COMPRISING THE SUBSTANCE OF THE MOST APPROVED GREEK 
GRAMMARS EXTANT, 



USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 



REVISED AND IMPROVED. 



BY REV. PETER BULLIONS, D. D., 

N 

PR«TESSOR OF LANGUAGES IN THE ALBANY ACADEMY ; AUTHOR OF THE 

SERIES OF GRAMMARS, GREEK, LATIN AND ENGLISH, ON THE 

SAME PLAN," A GREEK READER. ETC. ETC. 



thirteem:h edition. 



NEW-YORK : 
PRATT, WOODFORD AND COMPANY, 

No. 159 PEARL STREET. 

1S47. 






[Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1847, by 
Peter Bullions, in the Clerk's Oifice of the District Court of the 
United States, for the Northern District of New-York.] 



Gift 
Ju dgeand Mrs. I.f? Hltt 

°^C. 11, ^y 36 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 



This work formerly published as a new translation of 
Moor's Greek Grammar with additions, has undergone a 
thorough revisal. Many errors have been discovered and cor- 
rected, defects have been supplied, and many improvements 
introduced, which a daily intercourse in the class-room with 
students in almost every stage of progress has suggested. A 
close attention t& this subject for many years, with favourable 
opportunities for observing the attainments made by many, 
wno had commenced their studies by different systems, has 
strengthened the conviction long felt, that a radical defect exists 
in the plan of most of the Greek Grammars now used in our 
public schools. However excellent the elaborate treatises of 
tne German Grammarians are, and however useful the many 
compends of these recently published may be as books of re- 
ference,*or as guides to such as commence the study of Greek 
iu maturer years, and have resolved, from a sense of its impor- 
tance, to master its principles ; yet on trial, 1 am persuaded, 
they will be found but imperfectly adapted to the condition of 
the great mass of youth in this country who begin, and too of* 
ten end, their Greek studies at an early age. With such, it is 
believed, that no system of Grammar will answer a good pur- 
pose, which does not present the leading facts and principles 
in such a way as to be easily committed to memory, and so to 
be ready for immediate application when necessary. 

It is true that youth of ordinary capacity by knowing only 
the inflexion of words, with the aid of a dictionary, and mode- 
rate application, will, in time, be able to guess at the meaning 
of a passage in Greek .; but this is about ail. An accurate, 
philosophical, and practical knowledge of its principles will, 
in this way, seldom be acquired. And wherever a Grammar, 
in the form of a lecture or treatise upon the subject, designed 
to be read and studied, but not adapted, or but ill adapted for 
being committed to memory, is put into the hands of young 
students, such will seldom fail to be the result. 

To remedy this evil and to provide a comprehensive manu- 
al of Greek Grammar, adapted to the use of the younger, as 
well as to the more advanced class of students in our schools 



iv PREFACE. 

and colleges, and especially of those under my own care, was 
the original design of publishing this work. To this end the 
leading principles of Greek Grammar are exhibited in rules, 
as few and brief as possible, so as to be easily committed f m 
memory, and, at the same time, so comprehensive and perspi- 
cuous, as to be of general and easy application. These being 
first accurately committed to memory, and then constantly ap- 
plied in the inflection of words, and in analyzing their forms, 
soon become so thoroughly understood and fixed in the memo 
ry as hardly ever to be effaced, and to be always ready after- 
wards, to account for every form which words in their nume- 
rous changes assume, and to solve every difficulty caused by 
these changes almost without an effort of thought. A student, 
though young, if thus exercised but for one y%ar or two, has 
an immense advantage, in the future prosecution of his studies, 
over those who have not laid the foundation of their success in 
a thorough course of drilling. 

Several excellent elementary works on Greek Grammar 
have been published within the last ten years, by men eminent 
for talents^tnd learning, and to whose labours I freely own 
myself under many obligations. But none of these, so far as 
known to me, have adopted to any great extent the plan just 
alluded to. To carry out such a plan to a greater extent than 
has yet been done, has been chiefly aimed at, and it is hoped 
in some degree attained in the present work. But while the 
leading and fundamental parts have been reduced to rules brief 
and easy to be committed to memory by the younger student, 
a copious illustration of these principles, and of the exceptions 
and varieties of usage under them, with every thing important 
to aid the advanced student, has been inserted in its place in 
smaller type, in the form of Observations and Notes, all of 
which are numbered for the sake of easy reference. 

In the preface to the first edition a full statement was given 
of the principal sources from which the materials, here collect- 
ed, were drawn, and which need not here be repeated. Suf- 
fice it to say, that I have not hesitated to avail myself of every 
assistance within my reach, and to gather from every quarter, 
and especially from the ample stores of German Philologists, 
whatever appeared suited to my design. The labour of con- 
densing and arranging, and, to borrow a term from the prin- 
ter's vocabulary, justifying the several parts with due regard to 
harmony and proportion, into one compact whole, has been very 
great. The first edition extended to a much greater length 
than was intended. A special object in preparing this edition 



PREFACE. V 

has been to reduce the size of the book without impairing its 
value. To attain this, nearly the whole has been re- written 
and condensed, some things unimportant have been omitted to 
make room for others of greater value. The number of para- 
digms of the declension of nouns, adjectives, and participles 
has been increased, and the verb has been thrown into the 
form of a table, so arranged as to present the whole of each 
voice at once to the view, and to render it equally convenient 
in studying it to follow either the order of the tenses under 
each mood, or of the moods under each tense. 

I would beg leave in this place to call the attention of stu- 
dents and of teachers, who have not yet examined the subject, 
to the method of analyzing and forming the tenses of the verb 
which is here exhibited. No part of Greek Grammar has 
hitherto proved so puzzling and harassing to the pupil as this. 
For want of understanding the few simple principles, ©n which 
the numerous changes in the form of the verb depend, they 
appear to him intricate, arbitrary, and incomprehensible to 
such a degree as to render the prospect of his fully mastering 
them almost hopeless. That this is owing, in a great measure, 
to the method of forming the different tenses by deriving one 
tense from another to which it has some real or fancied resem- 
blance, appears to me beyond a doubt. As there is no foun- 
dation in truth for this mode of formation, so almost every 
writer, following imagination as his guide, has proposed a dif- 
ferent theory upon the subject. One, for example, forms the 
perfect passive from its own future. Another with equal in- 
genuity forms the future from its own perfect through the me- 
dium of the first aorist passive! Another supposes he has 
simplified the whole matter by deriving every tense in the pas- 
sive voice from its corresponding tense in the active voice, 
by making the simple and natural change of -yjw into -gcc^ao^ca, 
-iu> into .yQrjjouai, -ipa into -q>dqv 9 -£a into -xOi]v, -cpa into 
-(Aftai, --/a into -yuui, and -#« into -uai, sometimes into -a+iai. 
Another still, in order to arrive, for example, at the first aorist 
passive, starts with the present active and, by a succession of 
stages, arrives at the end of his journey thus, orgsyw, scngeipa, 
MarosqxXy %OTQafifiou, Bdrqanja^ iargucpd^v ; and when he gets 
there he finds he has missed his way after all, for the first 
aorist of this verb is not ecrrgucpdrji' but eoTgecpd^v^ and to bring 
him thither, another rule has to be invented nearly as dark as 
the road he has already travelled ; viz. {i Yerbs which change 
e of the future into o of the perfect active, and into a of the 
perfect passive, take e again in the first aorist ; as, eaigarticci, 



VI PREFACE. 

iaTOEcpdjji'." What can be more perplexing and arbitrary 
than such a process? It is fortunate for the rising gei.era- 
tion that such a system is beginning to pass away, and to 
Professor Thiersch of Germany must we regard ourselves as 
chiefly indebted for the deliverance. • Throwing aside the com- 
plicated systems of rules and exceptions which the above theo- 
ries had rendered necessary, he directs to the more simple 
and philosophical method of observing and stating the fact, 
that the root or stem runs unchanged, or but slightly so, through 
the whole verb, atid that one part differs from another in form, 
only in the part prefixed and added to the stem, and that in all 
verbs these parts are nearly the same. Instead, therefore, of 
forming one tense from another by a process much like the 
story of "the house that Jack built," every tense is formed at 
once immediately from its root by simply annexing the proper 
Tense-eitding and prefixing the augment in the tenses that re- 
quire it. Thus for the sake of comparison, instead of the la- 
borious and clumsy process above; in order to form the 1 aor. 
p. of vTQscpw all that is necessary is to annex the aorist tense- 
ending -Orjv to the root argiq), prefixing the augment, and it is 
done, — you have eoTQ^cpdrjv at once; and so it is with every 
other tense. 

The whole system of forming the tenses from the root ac- 
cording to this method is given in about ten lines at the foot 
of p. 102, and all its modifications as applied to the different 
classes of mute, pure, and liquid verbs occupy only about three 
pages, 107 — 109. By forming the tenses in this way, the 
Greek verb will be found a simple, regular, and beautiful 
structure, as all that belongs to the language is. And I hesi- 
tate not, again to say, after ten years' further experience, and 
after repeated examination of other theories, that in my opin- 
ion " this method, for beauty, simplicity, and philosophical 
accuracy greatly surpasses every other system of analysis, 
anchthat a more minute, familiar, and certain knowledge of 
the Greek verb can be obtained with much more ease and in 
a shorter time by studying it in this way than in any other." 
If others, however, after examining the subject may be of a 
different mind, and prefer the method of forming one tense 
from another, Moor's rules for the formation of the tenses, 
unquestionably the simplest and most perfect of their kind, 
will be found at page 299, and can be learned either before or 
after the paradigm of the verb, as the teacher may direct. 
Those who adopt this method will, of course, omit from § 81 
to § 97, except § 87 and 88 on the augment. 



PREFACE. Vii 



Hints respecting the method of studying this Grammar. 

Those who have had experience in teaching the Greek language will need 
10 instructions from me how to study this, or any other Grammar which 
they may think fit to use ; but still a few hints as to the way in which it i3 
intended to be used may not be useless to the young teacher, or to the Stu- 
dent who may be under the necessity of prosecuting his studies without a 
teacher. 

It is by no means intended that the beginner should study, and much less 
commit to memory, every thing in the book. It is presumed that he comes 
to the study of Greek with some knowledge of the English and Latin Gram- 
mar, and he will therefore throughout meet with much with which he is al- 
ready acquainted and which will require no new labour. In general, the 
definitions and rules printed in large type, together with the paradigms of 
nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs, is about all that should be ^tend- 
ed to at first, but these should be committed very accurately to memory and 
repeated so often in daily revisals as to become easy and familiar. If this is 
not done, the student's progress will be slow and embarrassed at every step, 
which otherwise would be rapid, easy, and pleasant. By youth of ordinary 
capacity this will generally be effected in the course of six or seven weeks. 
It is then time to begin to read easy sentences, simply with a view to fur- 
nish a praxis on the rules and paradigms previously committed. In this 
exercise every word should be declined and every rule belonging to its in- 
flecti m should be repeated till it can be done not only correctly and easily, 
but almost without an effort. Two or three lines a day will be sufficient 
at first — increasing the quantity no faster than the pupil is able thoroughly 
to'analyze every word. Simultaneously with this as a part of each recita- 
tion, the parts of the grammar already committed should be reviewed re- 
peatedly, first, in shorter and then in longer portions', till the pupil is able 
to run over the whole in a recitation of fifteen or twenty minutes. All this 
may be effected in the space of three or four months. Longer lessons will 
then be proper, and along with this the study of the Grammar taking up 
the more important parts of what was omitted before, not to commit to 
memory but study so as to become familiar with them, and be able to refer 
to them at once when they may be needed. By going over the Grammar 
two or three times, in this manner, in the course of a year, every part will 
become connected in the mind with the rules to which these parts belong, 
so as to be readily recalled by them. 

There are two or three points to which it is necessary for the pupil to pay 
special attention. 1st. The Rules of Euphony, § 6. To the Euphony of 
their language the Greeks paid the greatest attention. In order to avoid the 
harsh sound which would be the result of certain consonants coming toge- 
ther, they often exchanged a consonant in certain situations for another of 
more plea:-<in2 sound, sometimes they changed their order, sometimes drop- 
ped one of them, or inserted another. To this is owing, in part, the appa- 
rent irregularity in the flexion of nouns and verbs, which has led to form so 
many perplexing rules for cases and tenses. The rules of Euphony extend 
not to the flexion of nouns only, but to the whole structure of their lan- 
guage — to the composition and derivation of their words, and even to the 
collocation of them in a sentence. 'These principles are few, thoroughly 
systematized, and very easy to be comprehended. They are exhibited in 
the sixth section, and occupy a little less than five pages. This part, and, 
as fundamental to it, the fourth section should be thoroughly mastered be- 
fore proceeding to the 3d declension where they will be needed 



V1I1 PREFACE. 

Another thing requiring special attention, and of almost equal importance, 
is the rules J err contraction. These should be studied in their place after the 
third declension § 34-40, or they may be omitted till the second revisal. 
These with the exercises on them occupy about six pages, and should also 
be thoroughly mastered. These rules account for the changes that take 
place in the form of a word when vowels concur, as the rules of euphony 
do in the case of concurrent consonants, and both together are indispensa- 
ble in.order to understand the forms which words almost uniformly assume 
under the operation of these principles. A perfect readiness in the rules 
of contraction renders a paradigm of contract verbs entirely unnecessary. 
Still as some may wish to have such a paradigm, it is furnished in the ap- 
pendix § 218. 

The last thing to which I would invite special attention is the mode of 
teaching the Greek verb, which on account of its numerous changes, and 
these affected differently in different verbs by the rules of Euphony, accord- 
ing to the consonants of which it consists, or which concur in the course of 
inflection has been regarded as so intricate and difficult. First of all it is 
necessary to ascertain in every verb the Root, or stem, which, in certain 
cases, undergoes changes peculiar to itself. These, however, are few, and 
under a very few short and plain rules, § 82-85. On these the pupil should 
be drilled till he can with perfect readiness and certainty tell the root of any 
regular verb the moment it is announced ; and also its second and third 
forms, when they differ from the first. This may be the work of one or 
two days. To the root is prefixed the augment in certain tenses, the rules 
for which will be found in § 8S, and require no special notice. The next 
step is to commit the tables of terminations § 92 very accurately to memory, 
beginning at the top of each column and pioceeding down the page, this 
will be much more easily accomplished than to commit the paradigm of the 
verb, and will answer a better purpose. All that then remains is to learn 
the method of forming each tense by annexing the Tense- endings, § 93, to the 
proper root, according to the rules for mute, pure and liquid verbs in § § 94, 
96, 97. This is an important exercise and should be persevered in, till the 
utmost accuracy, ease, and readiness is attained. 

The Syntax of the Greek language is a highly important part of the sub- 
ject, and should be diligently and carefully studied, but this may be post- 
poned to the second year, as the rules of Syntax common to the Latin and 
Greek will be sufficient for the earlier stages. The subject of analysis and 
translation in the Appendix §219, may be worthy of some attention. 

I avail myself of this opportunity to return my grateful acknowledge- 
ments for the favourable notice taken of the former edition of this work by 
many eminent scholars, and for the friendly critical hints with which I have 
been favoured by teachers and others. They will see that these have gene- 
rally been attended to in this edition. The third edition of the English 
Grammar has just been published. The Latin Grammar is in a state of 
forwardness, and will likely be published in the Spring. These three will 
complete the series of Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek, on the same 
plan, following the same arrangement, and as near as practicable express- 
ing the definitions and rules in the same language. So that one will be a 
profitable introduction to another, and the perplexity arising from studying 
English Grammar by one system, Latin by another, and Greek by one still 
different, may be avoided. 

ALBANY ACADEMY, ) 

September 2bth, 1840. | , 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Accents 5, 291 

Accusative of 3d decl. ... 26 
construction of . 228 
governed by a neu- 
ter verb ... 230 

Adjectives, of 44 

of the 1st and 2d 

decl 44 

of the 1st and 3d 

decl. .. ; . 46 
of two termina- 
tions .... 49 
irregular ... 51 
comparison of . 53 
comparison of irre- 
gular .... 55 
concord of, with a 

substantive . . 1S3 
other words used 

as 184 

used adverbially . 246 
obs. on the con- 
cord of . . . 184 
pronouns, con- 
struction and 
use of. . . . 187 
words, related con- 
struction of . . 198 

Adverbs, of 163 

signification of . . 163 
formation and deri- 
vation of . . .165 
comparison of . . 167 
construction of . . 244 
Adverbial particles (insepara- 
ble) .167 

Alphabet 1 

Anacoloutha 261 

Analysis i 310 



PAGE 

Apostrophe 6 

Apposition 183 

Article . 42 

dialects of .... 43 

construction and use 

of ..... . 192 

as a demonstrative pro- 
noun 43, 66 

as a relative and per- 
sonal pronoun 195, 67, 43 

Augment, of 93 

place of, in com- 
pound words . . 95 
observations on . 96 
Auxiliary verbs ...*.. 83 



Caesural pause .... 

Case, of ...... 

Characteristic of the verb, of 
Circumstances, construction 

of 

of cause or origin 

of limitation . 

of cause, manner, 

and instrument 
of place . . 
of time . . . 
of measure 
of price . . 
of exclamation 
Comparison of Adjectives 
general rule for 
in -lojv and -kttos 
irregular . . 
defective . . 
dialects of . . 
Comparative deg., construe 
tion and use of ... . 
government of 



285 
15 
87 

237 

238 
239 

241 

242 

243 

243 

244 

244 

53 

53 

54 

55 

55 

56 

187 
212 



INDEX. 



PAGF, 

Conjunctions, of .173 

construction of 209 
signification and 

use of . . . 174 

Contractions, of 34 

of the 1st decl. . 35 

of the 2d decl. . 36 

of the 3d decl. . 36 

general rules for 37 

exercises on . 38 

special rules for 39 



Dative plural 3d decl. of . • 
construction of . . • 
after substantives . 
governed by adjectives 
by verbals in -tos and 

-TfiOff 

by verbs . . . 

by impersonal verbs 

Declension, general rules for 

first .... 

second . . , 

do. Attic form of 
third . . . 
gen. of . 
do. of adjec 

tives . 
accusative of 
vocative of . 
dative plural of 
dialects of 
genders of 
Deponent verbs . . . 
Dialects of the 1st declen. 
of the 2d . . , 
of the 3d . . 
of the article . . 
of comparison 
of the pronoun 
of the verb 
oPEjjuu 

Diaeresis 

Diastole 

Digamma 

Diphthongs .... 



Etymology 

Euphony, rules of . . . 

Figures affecting syllables . . 7 

Final letters of the active voice 98 

mid. and pass. 98 

of verbs in -pi . 129 



28 
219 
219 
220 

221 

222 

226 

16 

17 
20 

22 
22 
23 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

146 

19 

21 

29 

43 

56 

70 

123 

141 

7 

7 

6 

2 

13 

8 



PAGE 

Future 1st active, formation . 299 

of special rules for . 299 

of pure verbs . . . 300 

passive, rules for . 301 

special do. for . . 301 

Future 2d, rules for the penult 

of 302 

special do 303 

verbs which want the . 303 

Gender, of ...... 15 

Genders" of the 3d decl. . . 30 

Genitive of do 23 

of adjectives of do. . 25 
obs. on construction 

of 205 

governed by substan- 
tives 207 

by adj. in the 

neut. gender 209 
by adjectives . 210 
by the comp. de- 
gree ... 212 
by verbs . . . 214 
Government of 204 

Imperative mood, Syntax of . 253 

Impersonal verbs .... 147 

construction of . 226 
Indicative mood, construction 

of .252 

Infinitive mood, construction 

of ....;.... 257 

as a verbal noun . 253 

without a subject . 253 

with a subject . . 260 

used absolutely . . 262 



Metre, of 




279 


Iambic • . , 




281 


Trochaic . . 




281 


Anapaestic . . 


, , 


281 


Dactylic 


. # 


282 


Choriambic 


. . 


283 


Antispastic 


. . 


283 


Ionic a majore 


. . 


284 


Ionic a minore 


. . 


284 


Paeon ic ... 




285 


Metres compound, of . 


# # 


286 


tables of . . . 




286 


Mood vowels, of . . 


. . 


98 


Moods, subjunctive and 


opta- 




tive, construction of 


• • 


253 


Mutes 


• 


4 



INDEX. 



XI 



PAGE 

New present, formation of. . 149 

Negatives, of i 247 

double .... 248 

Norn, case, construction of . 201 
concord of, with the 

verb in number . . 202 

in person . . 204 

Nouns, of 14 

accidents of ... . 15 

Nouns, irregular, of . . . . 31 

defective, of ... . 33 

of peculiar signification 33 

Number, of ..... . 15 

Numbers, cardinal .... 57 

ordinal 59 

notation of ... 59 

table of .... . 60 

Numerals, classes of . . . 57 

Paradigm of the active voice . 112 

of the middle . . . 114 

of the passive. . . 116 

of contract verbs . . 308 

of verbs in -/« . . 133 

Participles, of 85 

the construction of . 263 
for the infinitive . . 265 
with \avddvui &c. . 267 
with efytt, yivofiai, &C. 267 
in the case absolute 268 
Particles, conjunctive and ad- 
verbial 167 

signification of . . 174 

Parts of speech ..... 14 

indeclinable, of the 13 
Passive voice, construction of 

cases with 235 

Perfect active, formation of . 300 
active, special rules for 

penult of .... 301 

passive, formation of . 302 

middle, rules for 1 . 304 

Prepositions, of 168 

alphabetical list of 169 
construction of . 250 
in compo- 
sition . 251 
Pronouns, personal .... 62 
possessive .... 63 
construction of 191 
in apposition . 183 

definite 63 

reflexive .... 64 

reciprocal .... 65 



PAGK 

Pronouns, demonstrative . . 65 

construction of 189 

relative 66 

concord of. . 195 

attraction of . 197 
other words 

used as . . 197 

in the sense of 

other words 198 

interrogative ... 67 

construction of 191 

indefinite .... 68 

construction of 190 

declensidh of . . . 69 

correlative ... 69 

dialects of ... . 70 

Prosody ....... 271 

Punctuation ...... 13 



Root of the verb, of ... . 87 

of finding and changing 87 

of the second .... 89 

third 90 

verbs wanting the 2d and 

3d 91 

of the tenses .... 92 

Sentences, simple and com- 
plex . ....:. 181,310 

Spiritus, of the 5 

Superlative degree, construc- 
tion and use of .... 187 
Syllables .:..... 5 

Syntax 181 

parts of ...... 182 

general principles of . 182 

2d part of 204 

of the verb .... 252 

Table of vowel sounds ... 3 

Tense-root 92 

Tense-signs 92 

Tense-endings 92 

table of 102 

Tenses, of ,.;... . 78 

obs. on the use of . . 82 
of mute and pure verbs, 

formation of . . . 102 
of liquid verbs, forma- 
tion of 109 

formation, examples of 104 

Moor's rules for . . 299 

tabular view of . . . 307 

of verbs in -/«, of . . 128 

formation of . . 130 



XI 1 



INDEX. 



Tenses of verbs formed from 

the primitive . ... 133 

terminations of . . 

table of . . 

of verbs in -/u 

Translation 



139 

99 

99 

129 

312 



Verb, of 71 

different kinds of . . . 72 

inflection of 73 

auxiliary ...*.. 83 

characteristic of . . . 87 
augment ofi (see aug 

ment.) 
termination of (see termi- 

tion.) 

mute, -special rules for . 103 

pure do. do. . 107 

liquid do. do. . 109 

contract of 110 

paradigm of . . 308 

dialects of 123 

of the 2d conjugation . 127 

in -fxt, tenses o . 130, 139 

root of 128 

final letters, 129 

combination of . . . 130 

paradigm of • . . . . 133 



PAGE 

Verbs, obs. on 137 

irregular and defective 139, 148 

inflection of . . . . 140 

alphabetical list of . . 151 

deponent 146 

impersonal 147 

of peculiar signification . 147 
conjugation of, through 

the primary tenses . . 305 

concord of 202 

rules and obs; 

concerning . 202 

governing the genitive . 214 

dative . . 222 

aecus. . . 228 

ace. &gen. 231 

ace. & dat. 232 

two accus. 233 

syntax of ..... 252 

Voice, of 74 

active, table of . . . 112 

obs. on . . . 118 

middle, of . . • . . 75 

tenses of. . . 76 

table of ... 114 

passive, table of . . 1 16 

middle and passive, 

obs. on . . . . . 121 



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in Ancient Greek MSS. <fc 


Editions 




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xara, 


tr&^, asf, crOai., 


Jit, 


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xf$* MgpaMuov, 


<no, 


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ejv, 


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fydfi, 


UCtOy 


CGJ, 


avr, 


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avTcp } 


f*?v ? 


jUSl'i 


%> 


*%, 


& 


yaq, 




usTa, 


3/3, 


Taty 


rfv. 


%zv> 


lUtV; 


/J7JV, 


$ 


ecUSi, 


P" 


n> 


/Jp> 


awl', 


r,rj, 


TtjVy 


04 


yqa&erm 


• ^r t 

°&1>> 


oio% o%\ 




rys, 


d, 


SI 


&r 


os, 


To, 


* « 


I 


tf,<T^, 


ov 7 ov, 


m 


Xov, 


%$,% 


bia } 


rfoe. 


89C, 


%$T$, 


zov y 


<fy, 


$(>, 




JtaOy 


sfy 


TOV £, 


e*»j, 


£i, 


<&&, 


TtCLQH) 


5'Z 7 ' 


T(>, 


*0, 


£i< 


tf> 


Jteo, 


(T'-v. 


T()Qy 


eivaiy 


'GrtU, 


KSq, 


TV, a 3 


rfi, 


GfX, 


in, 


ttyttfi 


acq, 


4kft 


TCJV, 


fcft< 


£> v , «XX, 


&t?>, 


ttoa, 


s, 


v> 


hv, w , 


£1', 


<&&, 


arqoj 


y> 


Vly 


(fill, UtH'y 


s&j 


<&&>, 


JV0G) } 


UV,'^A>, 


VV) 


bjczior/, 


e^' 


qa } 


-^ 


Vfl, 


€ft€'V> 


gA 


1*> 


Iffi 


VX£^ 


Hrtij 


&> 


qo y 


*v^77>, 


vzro, 


°%A 


£<?> 


&>> 


gat, 


a%^, 


y&qi, 


j oil, 


£(fT(, 


G>> 


(fa, 


7&% 


M c > 


1 


ev, 


t> 


<ra% 


cf, 


G, 



GREEK GRAMMAR. 
PART I. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



The Greek Alphabet consists of twenty-four 
Letters, namely : 



A) a. 


"Alcpa. 


Alpha. 


a. 


B, ft 6. 


Brrza. 


Beta. 


b. 


r, hf- ' 


r&ufia. 


Gamma. 




A, S. 


sdelra. 


Delta. 


d. 


E, B. 


*E\pMv. 


Epsilon. 


e. 


z, t 2 


Zr\ia. 


Zeta. 


z. 


H, v . 


'Hra. 


Eta. 


e. 


0, &, e. 


©rjTOf. 


Theta. 


th. 


i, i. 


y libra. 


I6ta. 


i. 


K, x. 3 


KuTtTta. 


Kappa. 


k. 


A, I. 


A&[i6da. 


Lambda. 


1. 


M, /i. 


Mv. 


Mu. 


m. 


N, v. 


m. 


Nu. 


n. 


ft ?■ 


£%, 


Xi. 


X. 


0, o. 


* Oiiuxgbv. 


Omikron. 


S. 


77, 7r, W. 


m. 


Pi. 


P- 


P, ?. 


£ P5. 


Rho. 


r. 




.STy^a.. 


Sigma. 


s. 


r 5 t. 7. 


T«u. 


Tau. 


t. 


r, u. 


'Yxpvlbv. 


Upsilon. 


u. 


#, <p. 


<m. 


Phi. 


ph. 


-x, * 5 


xt. 


Chi. 


ch. 


r, y,. 


m. 


Psi. 


ps. 


J2 5 w. 


*Jl[A£ya. 


Omega. 


6. 



1 r before a vowel like g hard, as in got; — before *, y, ^, or l> it is sounded 
like n <r in sins, thus, ayyehoq, dyKwv, pronounced ang-elos, ang-kon. 

2 Z like dz sounded soft, as ^eXi^eo, pronounced melid-zo, £ao>, pronoun- 
ced dzao. 

3 K like k or c hard. 

a Sisma at the end of a word is written ?, not at the end a, 
5 X is always a guttural, like the German ch in buch. 



DIVISION OF LETTERS. 

Letters are either Vowels or Consonants. 



§ 1. OF VOWELS. 

1. The vowels are seven ; viz. 

Two short, b, o. 

Two long, 7], co. 

Three doubtful, a, i, v. 

2. A, i, v, are called doubtful, because they are sometimes 
short, and sometimes long. Thus, 

a in TTaifiQ, is always short. 

a in labg, is always long. 

a m"Agrjg, may be either long or short. 
There are but five distinct vowel sounds in the Greek lan- 
guage, viz. a, e, i, o, v. The rj, and co, are used to express 
the lengthened sound of s and o. The vowel sounds then 
may be thus expressed : 

Short, 6, o, a,X, v. 

Long, rj, co, a, T, v. 



§ 2. OF DIPHTHONGS. 

1. A diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound. 
If the sound of both vowels be distinctly heard, it is called a 
Proper diphthong ; if not, it is called an Improper diphthong. 

Note 1. The first vowel of a diphthong is called the prepositive vowel; 
and ihe second, the subjunctive vowel, 

2. The Proper diphthongs are six ; and are formed from 
a, f, o, with i or v subjoined : thus, 

from a are formed av and av, 
from € ei and tv, 

from o oi and ov. 

3. The Improper diphthongs are also six. Three have the 
Subjunctive vowel v written under ; viz. a, 77, co. The other 
three are rjv, cov, v*. 

Note 2. In the improper diphthongs a, 77, y, when the prepositive is a 
capital, the 1 is written after it ; thus, Ae, Hi, £2t. 



M 



PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS. 



4. A vowel, preceded by another vowel, with which it does 
not form a diphthong, is said to be pure. Thus, a is pure in 
yia and villa ; og is pure in noleog, gadlog, &c. 



§3. 



OF THE PRONUNCIATION OF TOWELS AND 
DIPHTHONGS. 



The ancient pronunciation of the Greek vowels and diph- 
thongs cannot now be determined with certainty in all cases. 
The knowledge we have of it is derived chiefly from Greek 
words that appear in Latin, and Latin words that appear in 
Greek ; — from imitation of natural sounds, as the bleating of 
the sheep, or the barking of the dog ; — from a play upon 
words, and other hints of a similar character. 

If uniformity in the pronunciation of the Greek is to be 
aimed at — and it is certainly desirable that it should — the 
Erasmian method, among all others now in use, seems en- 
titled to preference as a standard, not only on account of its 
simplicity and perspicuity, but also as having the authority 
of the ancients, so far as this can be ascertained, decidedly 
in its favour. It is, moreover, the pronunciation that gene- 
rally prevails in Europe, and has been adopted in some of 
the most distinguished schools in America. The whole sys- 
tem is exhibited in the following 



TABLE 


OF VOWEL 


AND DIPHTHONGAL SOUNDS 


Short a 


like 


a in Jehovah 


as 


TTar^g. 


Long a 




a 


far, 


as 


nag. 


Short e 




e 


met, 


as 


yevog. 


Long r\ 




ey 


they, # 


as 


<h><>. 


Short i 




i 


tin, 


as 


Iva. 


Long i 




i 


machine, 


as 


Ihov, /(log 


Short o 







not, 


as 


jovog. 


Long w 




o 


note, 


as 


qpcoc. 


Short v as 


French 


u 


tu, 


as 


{A&QTVQ. 


Long v as 


French 


u 


une, 


as 


xvvbg. 


«6 


like 


i 


fire, or aye, 


as 


Tvxpai. 


£L 




i 


fine, 


as 


Tvxpei. 


av 




ou 


our, 


as 


avj6g. 


sv 




eu 


feud, 


as 


stye. 


01 




oi 


soil, 


as 


ot. 


ov 




ou 


ragout, 


as ovTog. 


vt 




ui 


quick, or we, 


as 


vlbg. 



4 OF CONSONANTS. § 4. 

§4. OF CONSONANTS. 

1. The simple consonants are either mutes or semi-vowels. 

2. The mutes are nine, and are divided into three classes, 
according to their strength ; viz. 

Smooth, 7t, %, t. 
Middle, 6, y, d. 

Aspirate, cp, /, 6. 

3. By strength is meant the force of voice, or of breath- 
ing requisite in pronouncing, which is different in each of 
the above classes, — the smooth mutes requiring the least, the 
aspirates the greatest, and the middle a degree of force in- 
termediate between the other two. 

4. Each smooth mute has its own middle and aspirate, and 
these three are called mutes of the same sound, or of the same 
order, because they are pronounced by the same organ ; thus, 

//-mutes, or labials, it, 6, cp. 
K- mutes, or palatals, a, y, %. 
T. mutes, or dentals, t, d, 6. 
Obs. In mutes of the same sound, one is frequently changed 
for another. 

5. The semi-vowels are five, I, //, ?>•, £, g. Of these I, p, 
r, o, are called liqu ids, because they readily unite with, or flow 
into, the sound of other consonants. 

6. The double consonants are three, xp, £, £; and are 
formed from the three orders of mutes with g; thus, 

™, 6, % \ i V, ) i ps. 

x, y, /, > with g makes < f, \ equivalent to > x. 
t, d, 0, ) ( t, ) ) z. 

7. In the declension of nouns and verbs, when a Tt-mute, 
or a tf-mute, would be followed by g, the double consonant 
ij) or £ is substituted ; thus, instead of "AgaGcn or Ttlexcrw, 
must be written "Jouipt,, nMZw, &c. But a r-mute, coming 
before c, must be rejected ; thus, for dvviaco must be written 
upvou), &c. § 6. 8. 

8. In like manner a double consonant may be resolved into 
the mute from which it is formed, and g ; thus, 

ip may be resolved into ng, 6g, or cpg. 

S into xg } yg, or %g. 

£ into ig, dg, or dg. 

This is done'when, in the declension of nouns and verbs, 

it becomes necessary to separate the g from the mute with 



j 5. OF SYLLABLES. 5 

vhich it is combined ; thus, Xallaip, by dropping the g becomes 
.ailciTi; xoga$ becomes xogax ; and so of other combinations. 



§ 5. OF SYLLABLES. 

A Syllable is a distinct sound, forming the whole of a 
vord, or so much of it as can be sounded at once. To these 
>elong certain marks and characters ; as, 



!< 



1. ACCENTS. 



• Accents are used to regulate the tone of syllables over 
which they are placed. They are three : the acute ('), the 
grave (*), and the circumflex, which was first marked A , then 
fj and lastly ~. 

The acute is placed on one of the three last syllables of a 
word, and indicates that the tone of the syllable is to be rais- 
3d or sharpened ; as, rimco, / strike. 

The grave is never placed but on the last syllable, and in- 
dicates that its tone is to be lowered; as, r^, honor. 

The circumflex is placed on a long vowel or a diphthong, 
in one of the two last syllables, and unites the force of both 
the former, by first raising and then depressing the tone of 
the syllable ; as, noi®. . 

v > - 

2. SPIRITUS OR BREATHINGS. 

The Spiritus, or breathings, are two ; the asper, or rough 
breathing, marked ( c ) ; and the lenis, or soft breathing, mark- 
ed ('). 

The spiritus asper has the force of the Latin H ; thus, 
&[iu is pronounced Hama. 

Note. Anciently H was the mark for the aspirate, in Greek, as it is in 
jLatin ; thus, Uardv was written hekaton. 

The spiritus lenis only indicates that the spiritus asper is 
not to be used. These, marks are used as follows : 

1st. A vowel or diphthong, beginning a word, has always 
a spiritus. In the diphthong it is placed over the second vowel ; 
as dfia, iyw, evoe, oviog. 

2d. u, or o, beginning a word, has always the spiritus asper. 

3d. o in the middle of a word, if single, has no spiritus, 
*>ut if doubled, the first has the spiritus lenis, and the second 
tfie spiritus asper ; as tcooqo), porrho 

1* 



OF SYLLABLES. § "5.1 

3. THE jEOLIC DIGAMMA. 



7, 



The iEolic dialect, the most ancient form of the Greel 
language, had no spiritus asper, and it is seldom used in th< m 
Ionic. The want of it, in the former, was compensated, ii 
all words beginning with a vowel, by a species of aspirate 
now called the .eolic digamma. 

This was originally a full and strong consonant having 
the sound of the Latin F or V. It was called digamma, be- 
cause its form ( F) was that of a double r. It is thought t< 
have been used by the ancients before words beginning wit! 
a vowel, and between two vowels, which, by its disuse at 
later period, came together without forming a diphthong ; thus 
oh'og, £«o, Vc, oi'g, al<bv, aogvog, woV, and the like, were writ- 
ten, or pronounced as if written, FoTvog, F&uq, Fig, oFig 9 at 
Fur, aFogvog, wJPoV, from which the Latin vinurn, ver, vis, ovis 
cevum, avernus, ovum, &c, were evidently derived before tru 
digamma disappeared. Between two vowels it was at length 
softened down, and even with the iEolians passed into v, 
Thus we have ai5?jo, avtig, for the common d-rjo, fag. This ac- 
counts for the form of some words in the Attic and commoL 
dialects in which the digamma, softened into v, still remains, 
especially where followed by a consonant. Thus the ancient 
/£Fo) passed intfl /svoj, and lastly into xiw, which still retains 
in the 1st fut. xevow, the softened form of the ancient %eFo& 
So xhxlo), Attic xl&to, has in the 1st fut. xlavow. In like 
manner vasg, the plural of vavg, still retains in the dative vai 
oi, the softened form of the ancient vaFoi. 

4. The Apostrophe (') is written over the place of a short 
vowel which has been cut off from the end of a word ; as 
till' £y& for dXlu ^/(b. This is done when the following word 
begins with a vowel, and in compounds when the first part 
ends, and the last begins with a vowel. § 6. 3. 1. Some- 
times the diphthongs are elided by the poets ; as, Sovlofj? eya 
for GovIouul eya ; and sometimes after a long syllable the 
initial vowel is cut off from the following word ; as, S 'yadi for 
<b (xyuOL 

Exc. Instead of the apostrophe, or cutting off the final 
vowel, the concurring vowels are sometimes contracted ; as, 
nQOvoyov for ngb egyov ; xdx for xal £x. 

Note. The union, or contraction of such words, is indicated by the- spiritus , 
being placed over the vowel, at the place of junction, as in the preceding 
examples. 



3." 



6. EUPHONY. / f 

5. The Diastole is a comma inserted between the parts of 
compound word, to distinguish it from another word consist- 

lg of the same letters ; as, to,ts, and this, to distinguish it 
om Tore, then ; 6,rc, ivhat, to distinguish it from on, because m 
ometimes they are written apart, without the comma ; thus, 

) T6, 6 TL. 

6. The Diceresis (") is placed over a vowel, to show that it 
Des not form a diphthong with the vowel which precedes it ; 
5, oi$, a sheep, nga'vg, mild, pronounced o-is, pra-us. 

1 7. The figures affecting syllables are as follows : 
1st. Prosthesis is the prefixing of one or more letters to the 

beginning of a word; as, a/uixgog for /uixgog, eslxoot, for 

eiKocn. 
2d. Par ago ge is the adding of one or more letters to the 

end of a word ; as, r\ada for r\g ; toTvl for rolg. 
3d. Epenthesis is the insertion of one or more letters in 

the body of a word ; as, elhaSs for llaSs • dnnorsgog 

for OTTOTEQOg. 

4th. Syncope, is the taking away of one or more letters from 

the body of a word ; as, fyQov for ^IvQov ; etigdjuyv for 

6^or](rdui]v. 

' 5th. Aphozresis is the cutting off of one or more letters 

from the beginning of a word ; as, oregon^ for dare. 

Q0717J ; OQTTl for £OOT^. 

6th. Apocope is the cutting off of one or more letters from 
the end of a word ; as, dw for d&pa ; Iloascdd) for 77o- 
oeidcovoc, 

7th. Tmesis is when the parts of a compound word are se- 

Bparated by an intervening word ; as, tineg two\ e/ecv for 
xjjtegi/siv Ttva, 
Sth. JMetathesis is the transposition of letters and syllables ; 
as, srtgudov for enagdov ; sdgaxov for edagnov ; x&grog 
for xgarog. 
Obs. The Ionians, by a species of Metathesis, change the 
eathing in a word ; as, xiQ&v for xit&v ; evdavra for evxavba. 



§ 6. EUPHONY. 

In combining their letters into words, the Greeks paid the 
rictest attention to Euphony, or agreeableness of sound, 
his principle, indeed, pervades the whole structure of the 
nguage. From a regard to this, they carefully avoided 
Very concurrence of consonants not easily pronounced to- 



8 EUPHONY. § 6. 

gether. The means by which this is effected may be sum- 
med up in the following 

RULES OF EUPHONY. 

(It is of groat importance for the student to be very familiar with the following rules) 
and expert in applying them, before he enters on the 3d deel nsion, as they are ther.l 
required in a most every step To aid him in this, a table of exercises is subjoined J 
in which In should practise i i 11 he can correct the orthography, and give the rule wall 
the greatest ease and readiness.) 

1. Words ending in a, and verbs of the third] 
person in e and i, add v to the termination be-| 
fore a. vowel, or before a pause ; as, 

Uauiv elnev exeZvotg, for naat tine Ix ; also to the diphthong! 
ei, in the pluperfect indicative active ; — the word sfoooxl 
(twenty), and the adverbs neyucn, nuvThnacn, vovcpi, ngoudeA 
oniude, xe and w . This was called by grammarians v lyelxvo-X 
Tixoi', because by preventing the hiatus between two vowels] 
it, as it were, drew the second vowel to the. first. Among! 
the poets it is sometimes added to these terminations before! 
a consonant, when it is necessary to render a final syllable! 
long ; and sometimes by the Attic prose writers to give energy 
to the tone. 

Obs. 1. Sometimes g is added, on the same principle ; thus 
ovzix) becomes ovmg. Also the particle ov is changed into 
odx before a vowel, and into ov/ before an aspirated vowel. 

2. When two mutes of a different sound come 
together, they must be of the same strength; i. e. 
they must be both smooth, or both middle, or 
both aspirate ; as trtrd, aoSstov, ct%6og. 

If, by derivation or declension, two mutes of different! 
strength would come together, the former must take the classi 
of the latter ; thus, the terminations -Tog, -drjv, -Oeig, with 
ygdepto, the o) being omitted, form yqanrog, yo&Gdqv, yoay^ 
and of two mutes already combined, one cannot bej 
changed without a corresponding change in the other. Thus 
in Inr/. and dxrA, if the t be changed into d, the n and *j 
must be changed into 6 and y ; as, knxa, eSdouog ; ohtw, oydoog 

3. A smooth mute in the end of a word isi 
changed into its own aspirate before an aspn 
rated vowel. This is done, — 

1st. In the composition of words ; thus, from M andi 



•; 6. EUPHONY. 9 

flfiiga comes eyruuegog. So from stitA, by apostrophe, 
sm\ and ftfiBQct comes hcpdr\ueQog ; from xaia and s&Jco, 
xadevda, &c. 
2d. When words stand together in a sentence; thus, ty 

f\ulv, xa& %uag\ ago' oi>- &c. 

3d. When words are united by contraction ; thus, to fy*4- 

jiov united become doi/u&Tiov ; to eregov, Outeqov^ &c. 

N. B. The middle mute <5 "is never changed before an 

ispirated vowel ; as,ol'xud' ixsodai; and 6 and 7 only before 

<£, and £^ in forming the perfect and pluperfect active, 

^ 86 Obs. 2 — Ex is never aspirated. 

4. When two successive syllables would be- 
|in with an aspirate, the first is changed into its 
j>wn smooth ; thus, 

i ffscpilrjxa, not cpecpilrjxa ; Ogll;, Gen. Tgi%bg, not Ogi/bg ; so 
pom the root <9o£/ the verb is ^oe^co, not Oge/co; from #££90, 
££<£C0, not Ogecpo); and from e/, &£&> not e/w. • (See below, 06s. 
L) In like manner from Oacp, the root of dama), (R. 2.) is 
derived vxcpog, &c. 

Exceptions. To this rule there are five excep- 
ions ; viz. 

Exc. 1. Compound words generally ; as, bgwQoQrigag, ecpvcpri. 

Exc. 2. # or / before ; as, g>d$£, /vdrivav. 

Exc. 3. When one of the aspirates is joined with another 
;onsonant; *as, Oacpdelg, anzcpQidov, TcvOeoOai, (but the rule 
3Lolds when g follows the first aspirate, as above in ig&x® not 

Exc. 4. If the second aspirate has been occasioned by a 
piritus asper following it ; as, Wrj*/ 6 avOganog for sOyx* ; ni- 
cev/a for 7i£(psvy-& ; and so of others. 

Exc. 5. When the second aspirate belongs to the adverbial 
erminations 6ev or di ; as, navTa/oder, KogivOoOi. 

Obs. 2. Of three aspirates beginning successive syllables, 
he first only is changed ; as, redacpa for OiOacpa. 

Obs. 3. When the first of two aspirates is the spiritus as- 
lev it is changed only before %; thus, odsv, 66l, rjqpa, &c, pre- 
fer v* the spiritus asper before the aspirates and (p, but s/co 
bust be changed into £/ou. 

Obs. 4. When the second aspirate is lost by inflection or 
otherwise, the first is resumed; thus, e/co, 1st fut. afco; rgix®, 
fge^a) ; Tgzcpto, Ogsipo) ; and the derivatives OgEmbg, dgsnTixbg, &c. 

Obs. 5. The second of two aspirates is seldom changed. I 1 



10 EUrHONY. § 6. 

is always done, however, in imperatives in Qi ; as, jl6aii } jtfqo- 
drjTt, ; for TlOeOi, TvyOrjOt,. 

Obs. 6. A mute may be doubled, but if it be an aspirate, the 
first is changed into its own smooth ; as, 'Axdlg, not' Addlg ; 
Bdx/og, not B&xx°9 > MajdocXog not MaddctTog ; 2ancp(b notj 

5. P at the beginning of a word is doubled! 
when a short vowel is prefixed ; as, 

'Pima), eygtrtTOV' d.QQ6n^g from a and Qinco ; nsqiqqoog from | 
7tf ^>i and £&w. 



1, THE MUTES BEFORE 2 

6. A 7t-mute (7t, £, <p,) before cr, unites with it 
and forms ^ ; as, * 

Islnco, Xslnaco, written lelipco, 

7. A * mute (#, 9/, #,) before a, unites with 
it and forms £ ; as, 

^tfw, 7]xora>, written ^£w. 

8. A r-mute (r, 5, 0,) before a, is rejected; as, 

a^uaav for a^axav ; ofaw for $#aaj ; qqvmti, for oqviOcfi. 



II. THE MUTES BEFORE ilf. 

9. A 7t-mute before //, is changed into (i' } thus 

for T&TV7l{lOll, lilQlSfia^ y&yQOL(p[l(Xl) 

write, T^Tu/^at, t£tql[li[j,gu, yiygafifiai. 

10. A^-mute before fz is changed into/; thus, 

for ninlex/iia^ 6i6o6//ua^ 
write ninXsyfiaty 6£6qey[iai. 
Hence y before ^, remains unchanged ; as, l&leyfiat,. 

11. Ar-mute before ^, is changed into cr; thus, 

for ^[vvxfiai^ TJ^etJ^a^, n^Tteid^iai^ 
write \vv(j^iav^ v\oei(j(jiai, nkneio^iai. 

Obs. 7. To these rules there are some exceptions in sub- 
stantive forms, as, dx^TJ, not &y[ir\ ; ndifiog, not nda/uog. 



§ 6. EUPHONY. 11 



( 



III. CHANGES OF THE LETTER JV. 



12. N, before a 7t-mute, and also before i//, is 
changed into [i ; thus, 

for Xivn&vco, kavS&vw, ivcpiug, evipv/og, 
write fofiTT&va), lapS&vco, eficptig, efiipv%og. 

13. N, before a #-mute, and also before £, is 
changed into y ; thus, 

for svxeifiicu, cpvvy&vb), rvv%&vco 9 nl^p^co, 
write }}yxeifia& 9 q>vyy<kvw, rvyx&roi), nl&yZco. 

14. N, before ar-mute, remains unaltered ; as, 

iviog, crwdia). 

I 15. N, before another liquid, is changed into 
the same ; thus, * 

for £V[18V(0, (TVvloCfl6uV(0, aWQ&7lT(0 9 

i write ififiivw, (TvlXafiS&vw, crvgg&Ttra), 

16. N, before a or £, is usually rejected ; thus, 

not datfiovai, avv^vyla ; but dalfioai, ovtyyla. 

Obs. 8. JV is retained before cr only in a few words ; as, 
TiQvvg, eltiivg, niopavaav. In crvv before cr, followed by a 
vowel, it is changed into a ; thus, avaaetia), crvacnrla. Ev re- 
tains the v before g, cr, £. 



IV. OF THE LETTER 2. 

17. When cr would stand between two con- 
sonants', it is rejected ; thus, 

XsXsl7t-cf6o)v, zerolS-adai, Xsyiy-odwcrav. 
without cr, XeXeln-Owv, TSTQtS-dai, XeXiy-dwcrav. 
combined, XeXelyOojr, TSTqicpdai, XeXi/dwcrav. 

And so from rjyyeXadou, rjyyiXOat, ; from nicpavadov, niyav- 
dov, or Tcicnacrdor, 

Obs. 9. Also when cr by inflection comes before cr, one of 
them is rejected ; as, 

Perf. 2d. Sin. ivwetiaa-crai,. Plup. iaxetiacr-oo. 
become icncetiaaat. eaxsvaao. 

I 



12 EUPHONY. § 6. 

18. When both v and a <r-mute together, are 
cast out before a, e preceding it is changed into 
ft, o into ov, and a doubtful vowel is lengthened ; 
but 57 and o remain unchanged ; thus, 

rvxpavTui becomes riipaoi ; 



Tvcpdei'Tcri becomes rvcpdeTcn; 
OTTfrdaco anelao) ; 

Xbovtgi Hovqi ; 

TVTTTOVTCn T<)7lT0V(Ji ; 



yiyavjui 
deixvvvTtn 

TV7TTCOVTOL 



ylyaoi ; 
dslxvvcn ; 
jvmwcri,. 



Obs. 10. In some instances, and perhaps always in the nom- 
inative, this alteration takes place when v only has been re- 
iected ; thus, from i-vg, rakavg, /uskuvg, come elg, T&ktxq, 
ftiXag. 

19. When two consonants meet, which are 
not easily pronounced together, the pronuncia- 
tion is sometimes relieved by inserting a third 
consonant between them ; thus, 

(xvQog, by syncope for avigog, is relieved by inserting d 1 
as, tivdgbg. Sometimes by a metathesis, or transposition of 
letters ; as, engadov for enagdov. 

20. Table of words to be corrected accord- 
ing to the foregoing rules. 



ehne ov 
yacji ex — 
eleye ovg 
elrcs 
tkkmjI 
eial 

Ou Cf, Tlx) 



(Let the pupil always give the rule for tne correction.) 



edrjx'' 6 
cpecpaxa 
OeOsixa 
aycrsv 
n I excrto 

UCpCTUt 

neldoo) 

&VVTCJOV 

kbkeTtjJixi 



crvvnlexco 
£v6ixi'vci) 

OVVCpEQW 

evipv/og 
ivxllvco 
X&XgriuoLi 
eyetg 

"Addlg 



Xeiitcno 

avvyovog 

iv/ico 

<jvv£ec*) 

IvXelntt) 

(xuv/tiivfy) 

avvgio) 

cnuvl^iptg 



I^SCTCO 

eTTQ&ydrjV 

evfi&llco 

TTurnovTcn 

TvndivtcTt 

7ie\>d(T0[iai 

Xiovxui 

%OTOLVT(n 

xgtSico 



§ 7. PUNCTUATION. 

The marks of punctuation in Greek are, the 
comma (,) ; the colon and ^emi-colon (); the 
period (.) ; and mark of interrogation (;). 



§ 8. OF WORDS. 13 

PART II. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology is that part of Grammar which 
treats of the different sorts of words, their various 
modifications, and their derivations. 

§ 8. OF WORDS. 

1. Words in respect of their Formation are 
wither Primitive or Derivative, Simple or Com- 
wound. 

A Primitive word is one that comes from no other ; as, 7talg, 
tiyudog. 

A Derivative word is one that is derived from another word ; 
-as, rccadelu, (kyaddiijg ; from rtitlg, ayuQog. 

A Simple word is one that is not combined with any other 
word ; as, S&Xha. 

A Compound word is one that is made up of two or more 
simple words ; as, exGullw, from ex and S&llw. 

2. Words in respect of Form are either De- 
clinable or Indeclinable. 

A Declinable word is one subject to certain changes of ter- 
mination, to express the different relations of gender, number, 
case, person, &c, — usually termed in grammar Accidents, 

Obs. 1. In every declinable word there are at least two 
parts, the root or basis, and the termination. The root re- 
mains unchanged, except by euphony, in all the different forms 
which the word assumes. The termination is added to the 
root, and is varied by inflection to produce these different forms. 

Obs. 2. The inflection of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and 
participles, is called Declension, mat o£ verbs, Conjugation. 

An Indeclinable word is one that is subject to no change of 
termination. # . 

3. In respect of Signification and Use, words 
are divided into different classes, called Parts of 
Speech. 

2 



J4 OF THE NOUN. § 9, 10. 

§ 9. PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The Parts of Speech in the Greek language 
are eight ; viz. 1. Noun or Sabstcmtive, Adjec- 
tive, Article, Pronoun, and Verb, declined. 2, 
Adverb, Preposition, and Conjunction, undeclined, 

Obs. 1. The participle, which in some Grammars is consi- 
dered a distinct part of speech, is properly a modification of 
the verb, and may, therefore, be considered as a part of it. 

Obs. 2. In Greek, the interjections are considered by most 
Grammarians as adverbs. 



§ 10. OF THE NOUN. 

A Noun, or Substantive, is the name of any 
person, place, or thing. They are of two kinds, 
Proper and Common. 

1. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an in- 
dividual only; as, * Otu]oog *A6fivcu; Homer y 
Athens. 

Among these may be included, 

Patronymics, or those which express one's parentage or fa* 
mily ; as, Jlqiuixldrig, the son of Priam. 

Gentile, or Patriot, which denote one's country ; as, ^Adr\- 
vvXog, an Athenian, 

2. A Common Noun is a name applied to all 
things of the same kind ; as, a^p, otxog, Siffhog, 
a man, a house, a book. Under this class may 
be ranged, 

1st Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, which signify 
many in the singular number ; as, labg, people. 

2d. Abstract nouns, or the, names of qualities; as, dyad6zj]g y 
goodness. 

3d. Diminutives, or iu 'ins which express a diminution in 
the signification of the no^as from which they are formed ; as, 
noudlov, a little boy ; from nuTg. 

4th. Jlmplijicative nouns, or those which denote an increase 
in the signification of the nouns from which they are formed , 
as, ueqxtttov, a person who has a large head ; from nscpdlrj. 



§11. ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. 15 

§ 11. ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. 

To the Greek noun belong the Accidents of Gender, Num- 
ber, and Case. 

1. Gender means the distinction of nouns 
with regard to sex. There are three genders, 
Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. 

Of some nouns the gender is determined by their significa- 
tion ; — of others by their termination. 

The Masculine gender belongs to all nouns which denote 
the male sex. 

The Feminine gender belongs to all nouns which denote 
the female sex. 

The Neuter gender belongs to all nouns which are neither 
masculine ner feminine. 

Nouns which denote both males and females are said to be 
of the Common gender, i. e. they are both masculine and fe- 
minine. 

The gender of nouns not determined by their signification 
is usually to be ascertained by their termination, as will be no- 
ticed under each declension. 

Obs. 1. In Greek lexicons and grammars, the gender is 
indicated by the article ; viz. 6 indicates the masculine, r\ the 
feminine, and to the neuter; as, 6 d.vr^o, the man, ^ yvvr\, the 
icoman, to ^ov, the animal. 

2. Number is that property of a noun by 
which it expresses one or more than one. Greek 
nouns have three numbers, the Singular, Dual, 
and Plural. 

The Singular denotes one; the Plural more than one. 

The Dual denotes two, and is most commonly used in 
speaking of those things which are produced, or are usually 
spoken of in pairs. 

Obs. 2. In the oldest state of the Greek language the dual is 
not used. It is not found in the iEolic dialect — in the New 
Testament — in the Septuagint, nor in the Fathers. It is most 
common in the Attic dialect, in which, however, the plural is 
often used instead of it. 

3. Case is the state or condition of a noun 
with respect to the other words in a sentence. 



16 OF DECLENSION. § 12. 

Greek nouns have five cases, the Nominative, 
Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Vocative, 

1st. The Nominative case denotes the name of an object 
simply, or as that of which something is affirmed. 

2d. The Genitive connects with the name of an object, the 
idea of separation, origin, possession. 

3d. The Dative represents the thing named, as that to 
which something is added, or to or for which something is 
said or done. 

4th. The Accusative represents the thing named, as affected 
or acted upon by something else, and also as the object to 
which something tends or relates. 

5th. The Vocative is used when persons or things are ad- 
dressed. 

Obs. 3. The Ablative case is not used in Greek as in Latin. 
Its place is supplied by the genitive and dative. 

Obs. 4. All the cases except the nominative, are called 06- 
lique cases. 

§ 12. OF DECLENSION. 
Declension is the mode of changing the termi- 
nations of nouns, adjectives, &c. 

Words declined by cases consist of two parts, — the Moot 
and Termination. 

The Root is that part which remains unchanged by inflec- 
tion, except as required by the rules of euphony. It consists 
of all that precedes the termination in the genitive singular ; 
thus, Gen. Tt/x-%, loy-ov, Xdfinad-og. Roots, Tip, Xoy, hxfmad. 

The Termination is that part which, by its changes, indi- 
cates the different cases and numbers. 

Nouns, &c. are declined by annexing the terminations or 
case-endings to the root. Except the accusative in v, of the 
third declension, § 24. 

In Greek there are three declensions corresponding to the 
first, second, and third in Latin. They are distinguished as 
follows : 
Theirs* declension has the genitive in ag, or rjg, from feminine 

nominatives ; or in ov from masc. nom. in ag or rjg. 
The second has the genitive in ov, from og or ov. 
The third has the genitive in og whatever be the nominative. 

The difference between these declensions will be seen at 
one view in the following : 



§ 13, 14. FIRST DECLENSION. 

Table of Terminations. 



17 



First Declension, 


Second. 


Third. 


Norn. «, ?/, ccg, 


?s, 


og, neut. oj>, 


a, *, u, co, », £, 0, j, y^, 


Gen. ag, rjg % ov, 


Of, 


ou, 


°£> 


Dat. a, 5, a, 


!?> 


9, 


h 


Ace. a^, r]v, av, 


?*5 


o», 


a,Exc.as§24,$13,2. 


Voc. «, 77, «, 


*7- 


e, neut. o*\ 
Dual. 


like nom. Exc. as §2.5, 


N. A. V. 0, 




O), | 


». 


G. D. aiv. 




OLV, 

Plural. 


o*y. 


Nom. cu, 




en, neut. a, 


££, neut. a, 


Gen. for, 




cor, 


cor, 


Dat. oug, 




0*£, 


C7£, 


Ace. a;, 




ou£ ? neut. a, 


ag, neut. a, 


Voc. at. 




ot, a. 


££, neut. a. 



§ 13. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

GENERAL RULES. 

1. The vocative for the most part in the singular, 
and always in the plural, is like the nominative. 

2. Nouns of the neuter gender have the nomi- 
native, accusative, and vocative alike ; and these 
cases in the plural end always in a. 

3. The dative singular ends always in £, either 
annexed or written under. m 

4. The nominative, accusative, and vocative 
dual are alike ; so also the genitive and dative. 

§ 14. FIRST DECLENSION. 

The First Declension has four terminations ; 
two feminine, 37, a ; and two masculine, yjg 9 a$. 

Paradigm of Nouns in rj ; rifi^ 9 honour. 



Sing. 

N. V. Tta-7J, 

G. Ttu.rjg, 
D. Tm-77, 

A. TtU-7Jj>. 



N. 



Dual. 

A. Y. Tip-dc, 
G. D. rifi.aXv. 

2* 



N. 



Plural. 
V. rifi-al, 

G. T^.CO^, 

D. Tifi.ccTg, 
A. t^.(*£. 



18 FIRST DECLENSION. § 15, 16. 

§ 15. SPECIAL RULES FOR FEMININE NOUNS. 

1. Nouns in -a have the accusative singular 
in -av. 

2. Nouns in -a pure* and -pa, retain a in all the 
cases of the singular. 

Obs. To these may be added a few words ending in da, 6a, 
and a circumflex ; and a very few in la and [xa, in which 
cases a is always long ; as, <Pdofn\la, Gen. (Pdofi^lag, &c. 



EXAMPLES. 



N.V. Mova.a, a muse. 
G. Movo^rjg, 
D. Movcr.ri, 
A. Movcr.av. 



N.V. (pdl-a, friendship. 
G. qpdl.ag, 
D. <pdt-q, 
A. ydl-av. 



N.V. ftfieQ.a, a day. 
G. fifieg.ag, 
D. f^ieo-a, 
A. i^BQ.av. 



Note. In the dual and plural all nouns are declined like njxri. 



§ 16. SPECIAL RULES FOR MASCULINE NOUNS. 

1. Nouns in -vjg and -ag have the genitive in 
ov ; and lose g in the vocative. 

Obs. 1. Some nouns in «£ have the genitive in ov or a ; as, 
naxqaidolag, gen. najqaTT^olov, or TtaiQanhola, a parricide. 
Some have a only ; as, Qco^ag, gen. Qcofia, Thomas. 

2. -r>75 has a in the vocative; b^it -Gryjg has 
either yj or a; as, 

IIovrjT^g, voc. 7TOM7T&; Irjo-x^g, VOC. IrjGTi] or Irjaxa. 
Obs. 2. Also nouns denoting a people or nation ; as, /Zeo- 
(77/g, a Persian ; compounds in -Ttyg ; derivatives from {ustqu, 
notib, and tqLSqj. Also Mtyvrjg, MEval/firjg, and lJvQal//Li^g, 
have the vocative in a. 

3. In the other cases masculine nouns are de- 
clined like the feminine, to which their termina- 
tions correspond. 

* i. e. a after a vowel, (§ 2. 4.) 



§17. 



FIRST DECLENSION* 



19 



EXAMPLES. 



•Strides, 
N- 'Aigsld-qg, 
G. 'AtofIS-ov, 
D. 'ATgetd-r], 
A. *AToeld.riv y 
V. ^Argeld-^. 



N. 
A. 
V. 
G. 
D. 



> 'AlQeld-GUV, 



N. 'ArgBiS-ai, 
G. Atqsi5-5>v, 
D. 'ATQetd-atg, 
A. ^Argetd.ag, 
V 'ATQeid-ai. 



Singular. 



Citizen. 
tcoUt-7};, 

Ttoltl-OVy 

nollr-rj, 

7toltl-7]V, 

Ttollr-a, 



Youth, 
vsavt-ag, 
veavl-ov, 
vsavl-q, 

V80LVl-aV) 

vearl-oc. 



Dual. 



oX/r 



TColll 



VBQtvl-OL, 



veavl-aiv. 



Plural. 



Trotor-a*, 

TtollT-tQV, 

nollz-aig, 
Ttoltr-ag, 

7Z0hlT-0U. 



veavl-ai, 

vsavl-ctig, 
veavl-ag, 
veavl-ai. 



Pythagoras. 
IIvdayoQ-ag, 

IJudayog.ov, 
Iludayog.a, 
Ilvduyog-av, 
Tlvdayog-a. 



Ohs. Since the termination -??, belongs also to the 3d de- 
clension, it may be observed, that to the 1st pertain the nouns 
in -tdyg, -&d?]g ; as, Qovxididyg^AlxiGi&dyg; the names of na- 
tions ; as, 2ixelL&Tyg. Nouns in -t^c, derived from verbs ; 
as, itoii]Tr\g from Ttoiica : compounds from ovovucu, Ibuy; /uerga, 
I measure ; jgl§o§, I rub, wear, train ; noda, I sell ; and from 
words of this declension ; e. g. ' QhvuTuovlxyg, from vixrj ; &g- 
%edlxqg, from dtyy. 



§ 17. DIALECTS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 

Besides the regular terminations exhibited in the paradigms, 
many words are found in different cases inflected according to 
some of the peculiar dialects. In the tables of terminations, 
A. denotes Attic, I. Ionic, D. Doric, M. JEolic. But the dis- 
tinctions are not strictly observed in every instance, — the same 
peculiarities sometimes occurring in two, and sometimes in 
three dialects. The following words are exhibited as exam. 



20 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



§13. 



pies, but it is not to be inferred that each part of them will be 
actually found in the Greek authors. 

Singular. 

Gen 



Nom. 
rif-i-n D. a, 

ia J 



6 



vdayop-asy I. 77?- ) 

f J D. ay. S 

HT '* \ .<£. a. ) 



-'Iff, 


D. 


a"?. 


-*ff, 


D. 


a?. 


"«?, 


1. 


m- 




; i. 


£0). 


-ou, 


s D - 


a. 




(jE 


ao. 



Da 


t. 


-5,D. 


«. 


-j7, D. 


a. 


-a, T. 


?7. 


-a, I. 


P- 


-17, D. 


a. 



Acc. 

-f]Vj D. aV. 

I. *7i>. 

T. r)v. 
( I. «.. 

""'Id. a,. 



■1- J 



Voc. 
-r7, D. a. 

-a, I. q. 

C A. as. 



Nom. 




Plural. 
Dat. 

-ca£, I. ?Jg, & 



Acc. 

. f I- £«?• 



Voc. 



-Of/. 



Thus, (irjTiiTtjg, JEi. [irjTiha, a wise person; IJr]lstdov y I. 
IjT]lFtdeot), of P elides ; Aivelov, M. Alvelao, of JEneas ; Qrj- 
(julg, I. 0?/£%, or QrjGr^ai^ in Thebes ; oloa, I. 6lor\, pernicious ; 
XQvoea, I. ZQvoir], golden. For the genitive and dative in 
(pi or epiv, see § 23. 



EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 



uBl^vrj^ the moon, 
o-ocpiairig, a sophist, 
nileiu, a dove. 
Alvetug, JEneas. 
ytcfvoa, a bridge. 
Xvcrou, frenzy. 
xiOuoioTrig, a harper. 
Avu&ayhoag, Jinax. 
a g or as. 



yliboaU) the tongue, 
tiyooa, the forum. 
iByvlirig^ an artist. 
Tjdovri, pleasure, 
ywvla, an angle, 
fiia, force. 
avQa, a breeze, 
tii'la, sadness. 
u.y(x)vt(jTrig y a wrestler, 



sIqi\vtj, peace. 
oo(p((x, wisdom, 
fielouva, black, 
r&lvava, miserable, 
dlxi], justice. 
^ovlr\, counsel. 
lAyjuqa, a sword. 
q)00 v rjua Tlag, hig h- 
minded. 



Note. The lenrner should decline soma of the words in this tahle ac- 
cording to the Hiff-rent dialects. In like manner in the second and third 
declensions, according to their dialects. 



§ 18. SECOND DECLENSION. 

The second declension has two terminations, 
oc, and ov\ ov is always neuter, og never. 






SECOND DECLENSION. 



21 



§ 19. 

1 . Paradigm of the Masculine and Femini?ie Nouns in o$ ; 
6 Xdyog, the speech. 



Sing. 

N. Uy-og, 

G. Xdy-ov, 

D. X6y~(p, 

A. X6y-or, 

V. X6y-e. 



Dual. 
N. A. V. X6y.u, 
G. D. X6y-ow. 



Plural. 
N. X6y-o* 9 
G. X6y-wv, 
D. X6y-oig 9 
A. Acty-oug, 
V. X6y-oi. 



In the same manner also are declined nouns in ov 9 observing 

the second general rule ; thus, 



2. Paradigm of Neuter Nouns in ov ; fihgov, a measure. 
Sing. Dual. Plural. 

N. A. V. [liTQ-CO, 

G. D. pirg-oiv. 



N. fihQ.ov 9 

G. [l&TQ-OV, 

D. /uirQ-cp, 

A. fihg.ov, 

V. pijQ-ov. 



N. ^T^-Of, 
G. /UBTQ-OOV, 

D.. [ihg-oig 9 
A. /uiTQ-tx, 

V. JLL&TQ.OL. 



§ 19. DIALECTS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 



Norn. 
Xay-6g, A. c6g. 



Norn. 
Xuyol, A. c 



Gen. 



Singular. 

Ace. 



A. cS, I -d*>, A. cb*>, & c5. 



I. & D. o?o. 



Dat. 

-org, A. cog, 
f & D. orcn. 



Plural. 
Ace. 
oug, A. cog. 

D. &£,& 6?. 



Voc. 
-£, A. 6$ & <S>£. 



Voc. 
•ol, A. i 



Neuter nouns in the Attic dialect have the same termina- 
tions with nouns in -og ; except that v is substituted for g. 

Thus it will appear that the Attic form, in which og is 
changed into w;, ov into wv, and ov into ©, is the principal va- 
riation in this declension. Let it be observed, however, that 
a long and rj before og, are changed into e before tag ; as, Xaog, 
Attic Xs6g. a short remains unchanged ; as, ra-dg, Tct.&g, or it 
is contracted with the o into wg ; as, dytyaog, dytycog. For 
the genitive and dative in (pi or <piv, see § 28. 



22 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§20. 



EXAMPLES OF THE ATTIC DECLENSION OF NOUNS IN 0£. 




Singular. 




Xaywg for laydg. 


ve&g for vadg, 


tivdyewv for dvdyeov 


N. laytig, 


1>6(bg 9 


(kvwyEWV, 


G. layw, 


red), 


(kvwyew, 


D. Ao^w, 


vsy, 


dv6ye(p 9 


A. Aayco, or (x>v, 


red, or ve&v, 


cevebyeojv, 


V*. ^a/c6^ or <5s. 


ve&g, or veedg. 
Dual. 


drtiyecov. 


N. A. V. lay&. 


V£(b, 


av&yew, 


G. D. Xayqv, 


rear. 

Plural. 


6cr(by6(pv, 


N. V. *a/a5, 


V6<&, 


tivebyea), 


G. Xay&v, 


vewv 9 


dvcbyecov, 


D. ^aywff, 


rsojg, 


(kv&yecog, 


A. Xaycog. 


VE&g. 


dcv&yew. 


Obs. The Attics did not decline all nouns in og in this man- 


ner, but only a very 


few. The same forms occur also in the 


Ionic and Doric writers. The Attics often declined after this 


form, nouns which otherwise belong to 


the third declension ; 


as, Mlvco, Ace. for Mlvwa, from Mlvcog, 


G. Mlvwog ; yilcov, 


Ace. for yilcoTa, from yikwg, yilwwg. 




WORDS FOR PRACTICE. 


ftyyelog, a messenger 


dtgytyiov, silver. 


gddov, a rose. 


tisrog, an eagle. 


egyor, work. 


aldrjgog, iron. 


ddlog, a combat. 


firfiov, an apple. 


vTQaxog, an army. 


SlOIov^ a prize. 


vorog, the south wind 


(jpogitov, a burden. 


tiunelog, a vine. 


olxog, a house. 


/ahxog, copper. 


tioyvQog, silver. 


Ttoadlov, a child' 


XQvadg, gold. 



§ 20. THIRD DECLENSION. 

The third declension has seven terminations, 

a, i, v 9 oh — Vj q, q : it has all genders, and increases 

the noun by one syllable in the oblique cases. 

Note. Nouns in £ and y> are considered as ending in c. 
§4.6. 5 



§ 21. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



23 



1. Paradigm of •Masculine and Feminine Nouns. 

6 Org, the iv Ud beast. m 

Dual. 



Singular. 



Plural. 
N. 0r\Q-eg 9 
G. 6jJQ-&v 9 
D. Orjq-olj 
A. Ofjq-ag, 
V. 6r\Q-6g. 

In the same manner neuter nouns are declined, 
observing the 2d general rule. 



N. <% 

G. 6rjg-6g, 

D. 6jiq-1, 

A. 6r\Q-a, 

V. &}o. 



N. A. V. %.€, 
G. D. diio. oil 



2. Paradigm of Neuter Nouns. 
Singular. Dual. 



G. fir[iia-Tog 

D. @r\ua-Ti, 9 

A.. j^ua, 

V. @r[ua m \ 



N. A. V. pfym-re, 
G. D. P^ud.joiv. 



Bv\ua, a tribunal. 
Plural. 
N*. ffyua.Ta 9 

G. @7][l<k.T(OV 9 

D. ^,aa-or*(§6. 8.) 
A. ($r\ua.TCi 9 
V. firi/tia-Ta. 



Note. In the declension of nouns which take -ros, -<fos, or -0o? inthe Geni- 
tive, the Rule § 6. 8. must be particularly attended to in the Dative plural. 



J$l 



or 



§ 21. OF FORMING THE GENITIVE. 

GENERAL RULES. 

1. If the noun does not end in g, add -a 
•ro$, to the nominative; as, 

N. 7tai&r 9 G . naiav-og, pcean. 

-fueli, fiifo-Tog 9 honey. 

Zevocp&v, ZevocptoV'Tog, Xenophon. 

2. If the noun ends in g, reject the g, and add 
•og, -Tog, -Sogj or -dog ; as, 

N. riqwg, G. i]ow.O£, a Aero. 

lallaip 9 lallun.og 9 a storm. 

H6rjg 9 l£6y.Tog 9 a cauldron. 

&va£ 9 &vax-rog 9 a ruler, 

launug, la find dog 9 a torch. 

ogvvg 9 bgvL.6og 9 a bird. 

Note. Which of these terminations is to be added, can be learned only 
by practice and a good ear. 



24 THIRD DECLENSION. § 22. 

Exception. But if the noun ends in og, insert 
e before it. All these are neuter ; as, 

N. Tf?/o;, G. Tel/.e-og, a wall, 

/utgog, /uio-e.og, a part. 

Obs. — From the genitive formed by these or the following 
rules, take the termination og; what remains is the root. § 12. 



§ 22. OF THE PENULT 

If the final syllable of the nominative contain a long vowel 
or diphthong, it is often shortened in the oblique cases by the 
following 

RULES. 

1. A diphthong casts away its subjunctive 
vowel; as, 

N. Savdetig, G. fiaadi.og, a kins*. 

@°vg, @0'bg, an m ox. 

vuvg, va.bg, a ship. 

2. A long vowel is changed into its own short 
one; as, 

N. noifi^v, G. TToiJuiv-og, a shepherd. 

Ai]tu>, Arjio-og, Latona. 

xuvibv, y.ocvov.og, a rule, 

dg&xcov, dgdHov-Tog, a dragon, 

ccld&g, aldo.og, modesty, 

jeivcpwg, Tsivcpo.Tog, having struck. 

3. l and v, whether long or short, are changed 
into £, in which case og only is added ; as, 

N. divctfiig G. dvrixfj.f-og, power. 

7i&v nait-og, a flock. 

Obs. 1. Nouns in -ig and -vg when they change i and v 
into e, and likewise nouns in -evg, commonly take the Attic 
genitive in -£o;g, (§ 27.) ; as, ndfag, G. ndlecog ; Socodetig, G. 
6aodeo)g. But neuters in v and v have the common genitive 
in -eog ; as, aaru, G. aoreog. Also nouns in -ig have the At- 
tic -ccp, instead of -eot,v, in the genitive and dative dual. The 



§ 23. THIRD DECLENSION. 25 

Ionic and Doric writers retain v in the oblique cases of nouns 
in -ig and i ; as, nolig, G. noliog, D. nolu, &c. But even in 
these the dative is usually contracted into sl ; as, ndlu, ndlst. 
Obs. 2. All Greek words ending in g, which take v in the 
genitive, appear to have originally ended in vg, and the v at 
length was dropped for the sake of euphony; § 6. 16. But 
to maintain the former quantity of the nominative, the doubt- 
ful vowel was made long, and the short vowels were changed 
into their own diphthongs ; 

Thus, the original terminations avg, wg, wg, svg, org, 
were changed into ag, r^, vg, Fig, ovg. 

But the oblique cases, regularly formed from the original no=- 
minative, remain unchanged ; as in the following examples : 
N. ytyocg originally ylyavg, Gen. ylyav-rog. 
delopTg, delcplvg, delqpTp-og. 

cpogy.vg, cpdoxvvg, cpoqxvv-og. 

xrelg, xihvg, y.isv-bg. 

odovg, odovg, ddov.rog. 

Obs. 3. Instead of rejecting v before g in the nominative, 
sometimes the g was dropped and the v retained; and hence 
the double forms of the nominative which sometimes occur: 
as, delcplg or delcplv ; cpogxvg or cpbgxvv. 

Obs. 4. Nouns in -t?/o, having -regog in the genitive, are 
contracted by syncope in the oblique cases ; as, 
txvltwq, a father, nuTsgog, Ttargbg 
nuTsgi, naigl. 
rcuTEOFg, Tiarghg. 
^Trjo, a mother, prpigog, [irjTQbg, 
So also, a*^, a man, dvsgog, uvdgbg. (§ 6. 19.) 

Note 2. But where such change would occasion obscurity by making the 
contracted word similar to another, it is omitted. Thus the accusative 
frarepa, and urirepa, remain unchanged, to distinguish them from narpa and 
pfirpa. 



§ 23. OF THE GENH1VE OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives of the third declension form the genitive by the 
same rules as substantives ; but some form it from the mascu- 
line and others from the neuter gender ; and the genitive form- 
ed from either gender, is also the genitive of the other. The 
gender from which the genitive is formed may be ascertained 
by the following 

3 



26 THIRD DECLENSION. ^ 24. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1. Adjectives in -iq and -ovg, form the genitive 
from the nominative masculine; as, 

(pi oTtctTQig, \ Q en j t j ve f both. cpdoTT&TQidog. 

M. dlnovg, f v, v 

N. dlnovv, \ dtnod ° g - 

2. Adjectives not in -tg or -ovg, form the geni- 

live from the nominative neuter ; as, 

N. Masc. N. Neut. . Gen. of both. 

iioi]v^ jegev, Tegev.og, tender, 

dXr}0r\g) &lrjdsg, alrjOs-og, true. 

fxelag y /uilar, /uslav-og, black. 

/aQisig, /ugtev, zaotev.Tog, graceful. 

Obs. 1. This rule applies universally to participles of the third 
declension, and these have their genitive always in .jog ; as, 

N. Masc. N. Neut. Gen. of both. 

Giag, ot&p, awv.Tog. 

Tvnojv, tvnov, ii)uov.iog. 

TV7t(OV 9 TVTtOVV, TVTTOVV-TOg. 

ivcpdelg, TvcpOev, jvcpOiv.jog. 

For the declension of adjectives and participles, see § 46 
and 47. 

§ 24. THE ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. 

The Accusative singular of masculine and fe- 
minine nouns commonly ends in a. But, 

SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule 1. The genitive in -og pure, from tg^vg^avg } 
and ovg, changes g of the nominative into v\ thus, 

Nom. Gen. Ace. 

ocpig, ocpi-og, ocpiv, a serpent. 

fidrgyg, @6iqv-og, @6tqvv, a bunch of grapes. 

vavg, va-bg, vavv, a ship. 

fiovg, @o-bg, fiovv, an ox. 

Likewise Mag and #dp^ have v\ as, 



J 25. THIRD DECLENSION. 27 



±\ T om. 


Gen. 


Acc. 


Xaag, 


Xaoc.og, 


Xaav, 


z&ps, 


Xagt.Tog, 


X&QW, 



a stone, 
favour. 

Exc. But dig, Ji-og, Jupiter, has 4 la ; and X&gig, for one 
)f the Graces, has Xdgua, and xgovg, the skin, has /p<ta, sel- 
dom zqovv. 

Rule 2. -i;g, -sog, and compounds of 7toiig, afoot, 
.have oc or ^ ; as, 

Norn. Gen. Acc. 

d)Kl>;, dwe 0£ ? &#£-«, Or G)Xl>J>. 

dtjiovg, dlno-dog, dtno-da, or dinovv. 

Rule 3. Words in -tg and -ug unaccented on 
the last syllable, with the genitive in -og not 
pure, have aor^; as, 

Noli. Gen. Acc. 

egcg, %gi.dog, egi-da, or egiv. 

xogvg, xdgv-Oog, xogv.Qa, or xogvv. 

So also, xlelg, xlei-dbg, xlel.da, or xleTv. 



S 25. THE VOCATIVE SINGULAR. 

The vocative singular is for the most part like 
the nominative. But, 

SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule 1. A short vowel in -the genitive, from a 
Ions vowel of the nominative, remains short in 
the vocative ; as, 

Nom. Gen. Voc. 

fi^rfjg, /urjTeg og, firixeg, a mother. 

Exw)g, e Exjog-og, c Exwg, Hector. 

Exc. But nouns accented on the last syllable have the vo- 
cative long ; as, noi^r\v^ Gen. notfiev.og, Voc. noi/u^r ; except 
Trairjo, uvrig, and dur\g, which have the vocative n&Tsg, avsg, 
and daeg. 

'Jnolloiv^ noorjdS)v, and cranio, with the long vowel in the 
i genitive, have the short in the vocative. 



28 THIRD DECLENSION. § 26. 

Rule 2. Nouns in -ig, -ug, and -svg, reject g in 
the vocative ; as, 

oyig, V. oq>i ; fidrQvg, V. fidrgv ; fiaaile-ug, V. fiaadev. 
Likewise, 7rcu£, yo«v£, and (lovg ; Voc. 7roa, yoai), {iod. 

Rule 3. Feminines in -cog and -o make the! 
vocative in -ot; as, 

Rule 4. Nouns in -ocg, -o^rog, (§ 22. 06s. 2.) 
have the vocative in -av ; those in -ag, -sv?og\ 
have the vocative in-£y ; as, 

Nom. Gen. Voc. 

u4l'ag, JXav-xog, JlXav, Ajax. 

Sipdeig, ^ijuosv-Tog, 2i/u6ev, Simois. 

Note. In proper names, however, the poets often reject v ; as, Aia for 

Aiai/. 

Obs. ywr\ has yvvav in the vocative; and aW?, in address- 
ing the deity, has &va ; otherwise &va%. 

Rule 5. In adjectives, the vocative masculine 
is like the nominative neuter ; as, 

N. Masc. N. Neut. V. Masc. 
u^rjOrig, dlrjdeg 9 aXtjOhg, 

ile-qrtuu', Eleijuov, tXh]nov. 

dlnovg, dlnovv, dtnovv. 

ftikag, f-dXav, /ueXav. 

/unlet g, %u.qlzv, /(xgisv^ also /agleig. 

Note. This rule does not apply to participles. These follow the general j 

rul(J J as, N. &. V. TVTTTCOV, TVTTTOVVa, TVTTTOV. I 



§ 26. THE DATIVE PLURAL. 

i 

SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule 1. Before -crt the rejected vowel of the 
nominative (§ 22. 1.) is resumed; as, 

Nom. Gen. Dat. Plur. 

flaadsvg, (Iccvdiog, pacrdev(n y a king. 

8ovg, 6obg, ($oval, an ox. 



$27. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



29 



Exc. novg, Kiel;* ovdelg, fi?]dslg, are excepted, which do not 
resume the rejected vowel ; thus. 



Norn. 


Gen. 


Dat. Plur 


Tiovg, 


7iod6g, 


7ioo~l. 


xrelg, 


xjevbg, 


weal. 


ovdelg, 


ovderog, 


ovdeuv. 


urjdelg, 


fiTjdivog, 


f-i^dicfi. 



Note. The three last can scarcely be called exceptions ; -«s being put for 
-lvs> (§ 22. O65. 2 ) 

Rule 2. -tyjp -repog, after a syncope has aac ; as, 

naTr[Q } TcaTe<H } 7TCiTQl y TinTgda^ a father. 
likewise avr\o, uveQi, uvdgl, uvdQ'xai, a nun. 
Exc. yaaTriQ, yao-T&Qi, yauirigui, is excepted. 



§ 27. DIALECTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

\ From the variety of terminations, in nouns of this declen- 
sion, it is impossible to exhibit them in one concise table. 
But the general principles are — The nominative and vocative 
Attic are alike,— The Attic genitive is in -ecus, instead of-eoc, 
fmd-iog, — The Ionic has r\ in the penult, through the oblique 
cases, instead of e and a ; and makes .bgl or -eaai instead of 
• an, in the dative plural, with the poets. 



Nom. 

3a<n\~£vs. 

JE. fj s . 

Sa9-vg. [ 

;avg. 




Singular. 

Dat. 



A. £G)$. 



-60S j 



■It*, I. i 



Acc. 



> I. ria 



-vv, orea. 



Plural. 



■«W) I. fjvv or rja 
■6a ^ °^ v ' 



Voc. 

EW, A. £0&. 

&, A. vs. 

1, A.H. 

av, A. avg. 

n. A. 6s. 



Nom. and Voc. 

( A. ^ 

$a<Ti\-£es. < or tig. 

(I. to. 

v-alsj I fjes. 

T£L%-£a 



Gen. 



-F.OiVj I. fl'j)V 

~aQ>Vy I. r\ r 7)v 



Dat. 
( T. fieri. 

7 { IT. J7£0-(T£. 

( I. rivci. 
1 I Jr . r\£aGi. 

( I. £<T<Tt. 



Acc. 

-£a$, I. rjas. 
■avsj I. /faf. 



Thus, Gen. '/elleog, of a Up, D. /eilevg ; Yoc. Masc. tfutf 



30 THIRD DECLENSION. § 28, 29. 

tv/s g, A. dvaiv'/y]g yigov, O unfortunate old man ; Dat. pi. xeyvl, 
I. ^F/^fom, to hands ; Accus. Ai]T(b, Latona, I. At]tovv\ Gen. 
Hcrreog, o/~a city, A. aoiewg ; Voc. cddot, .0 modesty, A. ai&bg. 



§ 2S. ON THE PARAGOGIC <p* or q*iv. 

Sometimes, and particularly in Epic poetry, the syllable yt> 
or cpiv annexed to the word is used for the genitive or dative, 
both singular and plural. It is annexed in the 

I. Declension by changing -a or -^ into -7/qot, e. g. aecpal^ 
xequxl-qcpi ; 6ia, 6h]cpi, or 6[i]cpiv. 

II. Declension by changing .og or .ov into -ocpv, e. g. arga. 

TOg, UTQUTOCpLV. 

III. Declension by changing -og -sog into .eocpi ; as, o/o£, 
h'/encpi ; oivfiog, uirfieocpiv. 

A few deviations from this mode of annexing the cpi occur. 
This form of the genitive and dative appears to have had ori^ 
ginally an adverbial signification like the endings di, Oev, de. 
To render it more definite the preposition was often prefixed, 
as, nagu vavyiv, near the ship, or ships; and lastly, it was 
used for a case without a preposition, in the same manner as the 
ordinary forms of the genitive and dative; thus, nlaxbg mvocpiv, 
the breadth of the fan, (kyhairjcpt, nenoiQ&g, confiding in valour. 

The termination Oev appears to be an appendage of a simi- 
lar nature, but is found only in the genitive ; as, «| ovgavoOev, 
from heaven. So i/uiOev for ifiov ; criOev for vov, &c 



§ 29. GENDERS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

The Genders of Substantives of the Third Declension, so 
far as determined by the termination, are as follows : 

RULES. 

I. Nouns in evg, ag-avrog 9 av and vv } are always 

masculine ; as, 

evg, o/Fvg, Gen. o/iog, 6, a clasp. 

ag.avTog, uvdgiug, uvdguxt'Tog, 6, a statue, 

w, 71UAU.V, nuvavog, 6, a pozan. 

w, (fooxuv, yooxwog, 6, a harbour. 

II. Nouns in ag-ahog, ryjg-ryjtog, au£, cj ? and ver- 
bals in -c$, are al ways feminine ; as, 



30, 31. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



31 



' ag-adog, 


Aftw/rd^, 


Xa.UTT&dog, 


* 


a torch. 


' TTjg-TTlTOg, 


xcxxoTT]g } 


KlXXOTljTOg, 


^> 


wickedness. 


«u£ ? 


vavg. 


vaog^ 


4 


a ship. 


w, 


q>sidu) 9 


(p&idoog, 


^ 


parsimony. 


*c, verbal 


yvvig. 


(pvoeog. 


4 


nature. 



III. Nouns in a, 6 ? », ag-arog, og and op, are al~ 

favs neuter. 

%/ • 

», ^e'ta, fiiliTog, 

u, iron/, TT&eog, 

ag-ocTog, xgeag, xgeaxog 

og, rji/og, jet/Bog, 

og, &og y aogog, 

Obs. 1. Nouns of other terminations are so varied in gen- 
,er, that no general rule can be given respecting them. 
Obs. 2. Dialect frequently varies the gender in all the de- 

J elisions, Thus, fiaxbg ismasc. in Attic, otherwise feminine ; 
id so of others. 



to, 


a tribunal. 


TO, 


honey. 


TO, 


a flock. 


TO, 


flesh. 


TO, 


a tvall. 


TO, 


a sword. 



i 



30. WORDS FOR PRACTICE ON THE 
CEDING RULES, FROM §§ 20—27. 



PRE- 



ayx&v the 

ur t d&v (o) the 
ytgwv (ovt) the 
urg (e) the 
tijiLg (d) 
tgtg (d) 
xogug (6) 
xv, a a (t) 



> 



tvdog 
fivog 

(xxilg 
nirrjg (t) 



M 



the 
the 
the 
the 
the 
the 
the 
the 
the 



elbow. 

nightingale. 

old man. 

air. 

hope. 

strife. 

helmet. 

wave. 

month. 

flower. 

race. 

ray. 

poor man. 



t6 ogog 
6 ogevg 
qAte 
yfy 



GO 



rcga^ig 



o&g$ {x) 
/nbv (o) 

nlivg 
li6iVTig 
Xcfii^v (e) 



the mountain, 
the mule, 
the flame, 
the goose, 
the action, 
the cough, 
the flesh. 
the snow, 
the thong, 
the pine, 
the seer, 
the haven, 
the goat. 



§ 31! IRREGULAR NOUNS. 



1. Some nouns have one gender in the singular, and ano- 
i«r in the Plural ; as, 



32 IRREGULAR NOUNS. § 3]j 

fl.) o dtcpoog, the chariot-scat; b ^o/lbg, the lever ; b xal 

Tugxuoog, Tartarus; 6 Toaxijlbg, the neck ; 6 oraOubg, the st>i 
Hon ; o Oeoubg, the decree ; 6 vmog, the back ; b eoerp.bg, tk 
oar ; 6 £vyog, the yoke ; are neuter in the plural ; as, tu dicpga 
&c. The three last have also neuter forms in the singular 
as, to rCoTor, &c, but with a variation of meaning. 

(2.) b dsvfibg, the bond ; b ho/yog, the lamp ; b xbxlog, th 
circle ; b (njobg, the thigh; b oliog, corn; have both a mascu- 
line and neuter form in the plural ; as, oi dso t uol, and rd deofict 
&c. 

(3.) r] xllevdog, the way, has ccl yjlevdoi and tu xiXtvda. 

(4.) to orddior, the stadium, has ol oi&dioi, and t& oi&dioc. 

(5 ) ywi\, a woman; bdbg, a way; nolig, a city ; x?Tq, i 
hand; feminines, have to) yvvalxs, tco 6<So), tw nohs, and n 
X?Tgs, in the nominative and accusative dual. 

2. Some have more than one declension ; thus, 

(1.) 1st and 2nd, as r\ oriyavr], and 6 OTtcparog, a croivn . 
1st and 3d, as, Mojo-i]g, -ov ; and Moioevg,-£o)g, Moses, 2d anc 
3d, as, to duxov-oi', -ov ; and to duxo-v, -vog \ [J&oivo-og, .ov 
/liuqt-vo, -vgog, a witness. 

(2.) Some have more than one declension in the oblique 
cases, from one form of the nominative ; thus, O&lrjg, gen. 
-of, 1st, and -?/ro~ 3d, Thales ; "Jo-i^g, -ov 1st, and eog anclj 
.rjTog, 3d, Mars;. 6 and to oxbrog, darkness; o/og, a chariot; 
i'Afcc, mercy ; i&pixog, pickle ; oouog, an eye ; have-ou the 2d, 
and -fog the 3d. 

(3.) Some have the forms of different declensions, in cer- 
tain cases, though not regularly inflected through all the cases ; 
thus, 1st and 3d in the ace. sin^. 4t]uoadei>.ng, ace. -nv and -««J 
Demosthenes; SojXQ(kT7jg 9 Socrates, ace. 2(*iKg&T.7]i> and-&*j| 
alx.ij, fortitude, gen, -?;;, (1st) dat. -i, (3d); -dap Ivy, a batde,\ 
dat. vcridvri and -bajjXvv , 1 st and 3d ; dcvdo&Ttodov, a slave, 2d, dat. 
pi. &vdgan65eo(n, 3;i Horn. ; yil&g 6, laughter, Q. yilmogM 
ace. yihaia and yihav, after the Attic form of the 2d dec. § 19. 

(4.) Feminine nouns in -o>, and -w.s, of the third declen-, 
Bion, have generally the form of the second as if from -o;, in j 
the dual and plural, when their meaning is such as to admit of 
their being used in these numbers* 

3. Some from one form of the nomi native, have different 
forms in the oblique cases, in the same declension ; thus, tL 
yoic, a tiger, has -vog and -trdog - Qeuug, Justice, has -idog, -uog, 
and -iGTog ; X<xgo>v, Charon, has -otvog, and .ovrog ; ybvv, a 
knee, and boov, a spear, have -vog and-«ro^ : %Qjg y xguxbg, and 






32, 33. NOUNS OF PECULIAR SIGNIFICATION. 33 

iovg, ZQobz, the skin, have two forms of the nominative, as 
ell as of the oblique cases, both of the 3d. 

4 Some appear to form the oblique cases from obsolete no- 
minatives ; as, v\nag, a liver ; ^aug, a day ; eWag, food ; cpgeag, 

well ; arrtag, fat ; x&gjjag, a head ; dlsicpocg, ointment ; deleag, 

bait; or euxg, a benefit ; ohQag, fainess ; vdujg, ivater ; ox&g, 
irt ; yow, the knee; dogv, a spear; have the genitive in 
twg, as if from -ag ; thus, \nu.Tog, vdawg, ydrawg. Ovg, an 
ir, mbg ; yala, milk, y&laxiog ; yvvr\, a woman, yvvaixbg, voc. 
bvai ; h]vovg, gen. ov, dat. ov ; ace. ovv ; voc. ov. 

5. Some are indeclinable, i. e. have no change of termina- 
on in the different cases ; such as, 

(1.) Names of letters; as, to alcpa, wv alcpa, &c. (2.) 
^he cardinal numbers from tzevts to exazbv. (3.) Poetic 
ouns which have lost the last syllable by apocope ; as, to dw, 
ir duua. (4.) Foreign names which are not susceptible of 
Ireek inflexions ; as, b ASguuu, rov AOqu&p, &c. 



§ 32. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 



1. Some have no plural; as, d^o, air ; nvg, fire ; elaiov, 
il ; yr\, earth; cad&g, shame; uig, salt. 

2. Some have no singular ; as, alcpua, victuals ; \4dr\yai, 
Ithens ; bvelgaza, dreams ; and the names of festivals ; as, 
7uradr{i>uia, Panathencea. 

3. Some occur in one case only, and are called monoptots ; 
s, b)rui>, O friend ; S nonoi, Q gods ; to oopelog, the advan- 
age. 

4. Some have only two cases ; (diptots,) as, nom. Ate, ace. 
S>, a lion ; nom. Zsvg, voc. Zev, Jupiter; to ovixg, the vision ; 
lorn. & ace. 

5. Some have only three (triptots) ; as, nom. fidgrvg, a wit. 
less, ace. w'xgrvv, dat. plur. /udgrven. 

G. The Poets sometimes cut off the final letter or syllable 
rom a word, which is called apocope ; as, vagi] for vAg-ijvov^ 
i head. Such words are then indeclinable. (§ 31. 5.) 



§ 33. NOUNS OF PECULIAR SIGNIFICATION. 



Some nouns have peculiar significations, according to their 
terminations ; as, 



34 



OF CONTRACTIONS. 



§34 



1. Masculine Patronymics, (§ 10. 1.) commonly in drjg o 
or ; as, JJ^levg, Peleus , Jleleldrjg, Pelides, or the son of Pe 
lens ; Kqovoc, Saturn , Koovlwv or Koovldyg, the son oj Saturn 

2. Feminine Patronymics, commonly in -tug and-*?, -**>?/ an* 
-ttbrj] ; as, ArjTtxj'itcg and Ar\axiig, from AiqTib, Latona ; *^o?yor/r 
from v j4doy(TTOg ; Nr^i'vy from Nrjgevg ; 'Axgicnwri] from '.^xgt 
or/o^, &c. 

3. Gentile Nouns, (§ 10. 1.) commonly in ^£, o£, or £uc 
masculine; and «, «c, or ig, feminine, as, 2naoiri, Sparta 
^7raojKj.Ti]g, a Spartan, 2a/u&Qsia, Samaria; ^a/udgsiTig, c 
woman of Samaria. But many of these are inflected as re 
gular adjectives. 

4. Diminutives, (§ 10. 2.) commonly in ta, iov, iav.og> o\ 
hog ; as, nuTriQ, a father , TiaiQldiov, a little father ; (a tent 
of endearment;) naTg, a boy or girl , naiblov, a Utile boy oi 
girl ; naidiozj], a young daughter ; eowg, love , iouivlog, I 
little lover. 

5. Ampiifcatives, (§ 10. 2.) commonly in ^«, or wv ; as ? 
olv.og, a house, oi'xijpa, a large building ; Og&ovg, bold , dg&owv, 
a bully. 

G. Verbal Nouns. From the first root of the verb, (§ 82.) 
are formed three nouns of different terminations and signifi- 
cation, indicating respectively the thing done, the doing, and; 
the doer ; as follows, 



poem. 

poetry. 

poet. 

thing {done), 
action or doing. 

' doer. 

§ 34. OF CONTRACTIONS. 

In a concourse of vowels, if two syllables are 
converted into one, it is called a Contraction. 
Of these there are two kinds : 

1. A contraction without a variation of vow- 
els, is called Synceresis ; as ; td%d y by Synseresis 



Verb. 


1 Root. 


Termin. 


Combined. 


noiiwy 


7X018, 


-fta, 


notrjjua, 




TtOlf, 


•oig, 


nohjaig, 




TlOlE, 


-*y$i 


nonjT^ 


nod o aw, 


Tjgay, 


.(m 9 


ngay/aa, 




noay, 


-oig, 


Ttga^ig, § 6 




Ttqay, 


- T VQ> 


TioaxTrjo, 




or 


.jrjg, 


7TQ<XXTr[g 9 

■ 



§ 35. CONTRACTIONS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION 35 

2. A contraction with a variation of the vow- 
els, is called Crash ; as, Ayj^ioadevseg, by Crasis 
Ar;uoa6svsLg ; rei%£i 9 by Crasis^re/p?. 

Note. A contraction is often made, but not always. 

Obs. If the first of the concurrent vowels has an accent, it 
i is changed into a circumflex and placed over the contracted 
syllable. If there be no accent on the first of the concurrent 
vowels, the contracted syllable will not have the circumflex. 

3. In the rules for contractions let it be re- 
membered that, 

the two short vowels, s, o, 

have their own long ones, ^ o, 
and their own diphthongs, a, ov. 



§ 35. CONTRACTIONS OF THE FIRST DECLEN- 
SION. 



In the first declension no contraction takes 
place, unless the first of the concurrent vowels 
is either a short vowel, or a short, and the nom- 
inative contracted is then declined regularly. 

Rule 1. ea, without p before it, is changed in- 
to yj. 

Rule 2. In pea and others, strike out the first 
vowel ; thus, 

l. 

y£a, earth, y\ G. j%, D. yf^ &c. like t^tj. 
ZQvoiu, golden, */Qvo% G. /ovo-r[g, D. /Qvorj, &C. 
'Ey/niug, JV[ercury, c Eotirig, G. 'Eofzov, D/Egfirj, &C. 

2. 

noQcpvQia, purple, nogcpvooi, G. noocpvpag, D. TiOQCpvoa, &c. 
urcloT], simple, focli], G. ankr^g, &C. 

'AOrjv&a, Jtfinerva, 'Adrjvu, G, ' AQijvag, D. 'Adyva, &c. 
i(§ 15. Obs.) 

'AneMirjg, Apelles^Anellrig^ G.'AtteUov, D. 'Anally &c. 



36 CONTJIACTIONS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. § 36,. 37. 



§ 36. CONTRACTIONS OF THE 
CLENSION. 



SECOND DE- 



In the second declension no contraction takes 
place, unless the first of the concurrent vowels 
be short. 

RULES. 

1. If a short vowel follow, change them into ov. 

2. If the second vowel be not short, strikeout 
the first ; thus, 

EXAMPLES. 

6 vdog contracted vovg, the mind. 



VOL 

V(bv 

volg 
vovg 
vol. 



oara 

0(770) *> 

baiolg 

oara 

oaia. 



Sing. 




Dual. 




Plural. 


N. Rule 1 vo-og vovg 
G. 2 v6-ov vov 
D. 2 v6-(p vG 
A. 1 vo-ov vovv 
V. 1 v6-s VOV. 


N. A. V. 

2 vo-u) v(b 

G. D. 
2 vb.oiv volv. 


N. 2 vo.oi 
G. 2 vo.wv 

D. 2 J'0'-0££ 

A. 2 ^o-'oi^ 
V. 2 ^o-o^ 


to dariov contracted barovv^ the bone. 


Sing. Dual. Plural. 


N. bare.ov oarovv 
G. oore'-ou barov 
D. oare'-o) ooiw 
A. dore-ov oarovv 


N. A. v. 

dars.ix) ooto) 

G. D. 


N. oart-u 
G. oarS-wv 
D. oare-oig 
A. oari-u 


V. ootLov oarovv. 





rri-oiv darolv. 


1 


V. dare. a 



So also £00;, a current ; nogyvotog, purple ; nloog, 
Hon; dmluog, double; ugyvqiog, of silver. 
Obs. ee, of the vocative, is not contracted. 



§ 37. CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLEN- 
SION. 

In the oblique cases there is no contraction, 
unless the first of the concurrent vowels is either 
short, or a doubtful taken as short. 

The following Rules are universal, being applicable, not only 
to contractions of the third declension, but also to those of 
verbs, and of all cases in which concurrent vowels admit of 



§ SS. GENERAL RULES. 37 

contraction, except such as fall under the preceding rules tor 
contractions in the 1st and 2d declensions. 



§ 33. GENERAL RULES. 

Concurrent vowels are contracted as follows; 
viz. 

I A short vowel before itself, into its own 
diphthong ; as, es into »; oo into ov. 

Exc. 1. But £8 of the dual into r\. Verbs excepted. 

II. A short vowel before the other short, is 
contracted into ov. 

III. A short vowel before <x, is contracted into 
its own long vowel ; as, sa into yj ; o<x into w. 

Exc. 2. But f« pure into a. 

IV. A short vowel before i is contracted by 
Bynmresis ; as a into u ; cm into ot. 

V. 8 before a long vowel or a diphthong is re- 
jected. 

VI. 1. o before along vowel, is contracted 
into cj ; as, oyj into cj ; ocj into o. 

2. o before a diphthong, the prepositive vowel 
being rejected, is contracted by Synozrcsis ; as, 
ooi into oi, &c. 

Hire. 3. But oeiv, v being rejected, is contracted by Crasis 
into ovv. 

VII. 1. a before o or o, is contracted into o; 
as, ao or <xg) into o. 

2. a not before o or o, is contracted into d; 
as, as into a. 

Obs. 1. a before a diphthong is contracted with the prepo* 
sitive vowel, the subjunctive being previously rejected. 

Obs. 2. i in contraction is never rejected, but in this as 
i well as others is written under, except in oeiv ; as in Rule VI. 
Obs. 3. Neuters in ag pure and gag, reject r from the ob* 
lique cases, and then contract the concurrent vowels. 

4 



38 



EXERCISES ON THE PRECEDING RULES. 



§39. 

Vin. If the former of two vowels is i or u, or 
along vowel, the latter is rejected; as, ts con- 
tracted i] ve into v] yjs into 37. 

Note 1. The contraction when the first of two vowels \slong, takes place 
only in verbs. 

Note 2. Haos and aoos, safe, when a contraction occurs, are contracted by 
the foregoing rules; thus, craog, cws, Vlt. 1.; ojlov, adv y VII. 1. ; caa, ca, 
VII. 2. * cdovs, acos, VII. 1. J adaSj cms. III. 

_ 

§ 39. EXERCISES ON THE PRECEDING RULES 
FOR CONTRACTIONS. 

The following table, containing the most usual concurrent 
vowels, promiscuously arranged, will serve for exercises on the 
rules. 



1, S6 


9, dw 


17, 


drj 


25, 


sa, 


pure. 


2, ea 


10, aov 


IS, 


s'C 


26, 


801 




3, 6jj 


11, as 


19, 


est, 


27, 


OS 




4, «o 


12, oi 


20, 


vs 


28, 


ost, 




5, 6u) 


13, 600 


21, 


aov 


29 ' 


OBVV 




6, 6SV 


14, ?s 


22, 


ir\ 


30, 


aa 


. 


7, oov 


15, 16 


23, 


oa 


ol, 


so 




8,6 V 


16, sou 


24, 


00 


32, 


asi. 






WORDS FOR PRACTICE. 






(Contract, 


give the rule; alter and 


place 


the accent. § 34, 05.9,) 


drjttoadiveeg 


drjuooQl 


P66 




Atjioog 




/ushx6sv 


drjuovQaveog 


"sag 






di-juoo-d 


evsa 


ylrjTba 


%Q&ea 


^JrjuoaQit's'C 




Aqjo'C 




I-Ioaxkirjg 


q)iXiu) 


q)iXieig 






diflocx) 




dl]X6l]T8 


dyuoaOevioir 


dyXdoi 






drjloov 




drjX6ri 


nuaousv 


Tl/U&Cx) 






Idcxg 




iluas 


xigai 


xigag-axog 




OQpieg 




Ti/LKXSCg 

ocpw 


Gdrgvsg 


Tid-fytv 






Tlfi^SV 




xigaot 


XEOUOIV 


fiigeog 






piigei 




/tiegss 


uegioiv 


fi&QBa 






[isg&wv 




7i6leX 


ndlssg 


cpeiddog 






q>si86l 




cpSid6ot 


xtoCCTOg, § 38.065. 3. X£Q<XT01V 






cpilinq 




cpMov 


xigaxt, 


xigara 






Ti/u&ri 




Tl/U&Ol 


xigaTS 

66eg 


xfq&tcov 






dr]X6ri 




dyX6ot, 


-fldis 






atiog 




cr6ag. 



A 






§40. 



CONTRACTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 



39 



§ 40. CONTRACTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

Concurrent vowels are not always contracted 
in the third declension, but only as directed by 
the following 



SPECIAL RULES. 



ft rgrfgssg, > , N. ojpieg, > „ N. firgveg, 1 a> 

L Tgrfgsag, ) " r A. ocpiag, \ A. ftoTQvag, j ^ " 



1. The accusative plural assumes the contrac- 
tion of the nominative ; thus, 

N. 
A. 

2. The genitive in -sog, from -575, -eg, -og, or in 
-00s, not from oug, and also neuters in ag pure and 
pag, contract the concurrent vowels in all cased! 

Example of the Genitive in-eog 9 from -rig. 

^ TQirigrig, the trireme. 



Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 




N. TgiriQ-rjg 


N. A. V. 


N. tgir\g-eeg 


-£t£ 


G* Tgrfg.eog -ovg 


T0£7]O-££ -Tj 


G. Tgvrjg-icov 


-CO* 


D. igv^g-e'C .ei 


G. D. 


D. Tgirig-eai 




A. rgirig.ea .rj 


TQlTjQ.ioiV -OtV. 


A. jgirig.&ag 


-6*5 


V. jgi>r[g-eg. 




V. T0£?]0-£££ 


-S££. 


Example of the Genitive in 


-sog, jTro/n ■ 


■og. 


to Tsl/og, the wall. 






Singular. Dual. 


Plural. 




N. reT/'Og 


n. a. y. 


N. Tslx-sa 


-7 


G. Tst/eog -ovg 


rsly.ee -rj 


G. reix-ewp 


-CO*' 


D. tsI/'Si .ec 


G. D. 


D. tsIx-bol 




A. TeT%-og 


TSi>x.£oiv -oTv. 


A. jetx^ea 


•? 


V. reTx-og. 




V. Telx-sa 


-r/. 


Example of the Genitive in -oc 


>g, not from -ovg. 


^ ald&g, modesty. 






Singular. Dual. 


Plural. 




N. «tf-<fe 


N. A. V. 


N. c^.o* 




G. uld-60; -ovg 


a^.co 


G. cdd-cbv 




D. uld-6'C .61 


G. D. 


D. «^-ot^ 




A. Gcld-6u -co 


ald.olv. 


A. aJJ-oifc 




V. aid-ou 




V. atf-o/. 





40 



CONTRACTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



§40. 



Obs. 1. Nouns in -a* and -cog have the singular only of the 
third declension. The Dual and Plural are of the second. 
Hence the contraction takes place only in the Singular, as in 
the above example. 
Examples of Neuters in -ag pure and -gag. (§ 38. Obs. 3.) 



-cog. 
.a. 



N. A 
G, 



to xgiag, the flesh. 
Singular. 
N. A. V. xgLag. 

G. xgi-awg, .«0£, -W£. 
D. xg£.ctTi> 9 -a'i } -«. 

Dual. 
N. A. V. xgi-aze, -as, -a. 

G. D. XQ8-&T01V. -&01V. .CO P. 

» s y ? . 

Plural. 
N. A. V. XQs-aTa, -aa y -a. 
G. xge-&TCov, -czcor, -car. 
D. xg£~avi. 

3. The Genitive in -sog not from -375, -eg, -0$; 
and also the Genitive in -tog ? contract only the 
Dative singular and Nominative plural. Those 
in -evg contract also the Nominative Dual. 

Example of the Genitive in -sog, not from .yg, .eg, .og. 
6 ftacrdevg, the king. 



to x£gag, the horn. 
Singular. 
N. A, V. xeg-ag, 

G. xig.aiog, -ao£, 
D. x eg- ar i,, -ai*, 

Dual. 
V. xeg-one, -as, -a. 
D. xsg-dcTOiv, -doiVj -c&v. 

Plural. 
N. A. V. xeg-aTcx, .aa, a. 
G. xsg-&icx)v 9 Awv, -Lov. 
D. xsoaai. 





Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 


N. 


fiucnX.evg) 


N. A. V. 


N. fiacnl.eeg, 6tg y 


jG. 


fiaod.iot;,* 


Pao-d-h, -Tj, 


G. fiavd.&wv, 


D. 


@uo~d-£i 9 -sly 


G. D. 


D. fiaad.evcn, 


A. 


8ucril £a, 


$aoik-ioiv. 


A. ftcxod-e'ag, -£t£, 


V. 


@(XCTlX-SV. 




V. ftaod-eeg, -6lg. 




Example of th 


s Genitive in -iog i 


^ n6hg^ the city. 




Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 


N. 


ndl-ig, 


N. A. V. 


N. ndl-ieg , -tf, 


G. 


n6X-iog, 


ntik-is, 


G. Ttok.lotW, 


D. 


7tok-U) -*&-£*, 


G. D. 


D. 7r(U-K7£ ? 


A. 


7t61-IV, 


noX.loLV. 


A. ndl.iag, -ig, 


V. 


7T(jl.i, 




V. Trol.teg, .*£. 



* See§ 22. Obs. 1. 

t In the Ionic and Doric dialects, TrdAi?, has the Gen. 7r<5A-ioj, in the Attic 
rdX-wj, and ird\-e<os. § 22. Obs. 1. 



§ 40. 



CONTRACTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



41 



Exc. Adjectives in -vg, Neut. -t>, with the genitive in -sog 
do not contract -ea in the plural. § 46. 3. 

4. Nouns in -vg -vog, and -ovg -oog, contract on- 
ly the nominative plural ; as. 



Singular. 
N. Ixd-tg, 
G. 1%0-vog, 
D. IjcO-ti, 
A. l/d-tv, 
V. lxd-v. 



6 l%d6g, the fish 
Dual. 



N. A. V. 

I/O .tie, 
G. D. 

IxO'VOvv. 



Plural. 

N. IxO-tsS, -VSy 

G. IxO-tiwv, 
D. Ixd-tivi, 
A. Ixd.vag, -vg, 
V. IxQ-tisg, -vg. 



So 6 £o#£, 2/ie ea:, G. &>($£, N. V. Plural, £6s£, contr. #ov£, 
• A. . . . 66ag, „ . #o£i£, 

5. Comparatives in toi> reject v in the accusa- 
tive singular and nominative plural, and then 
contract the concurrent vowels; as, 

@sXtIo)v, better. 

Singular. M. and F. 
Ace. Selzlova, 6sliioa, contracted SsXtIo). 

Plural. M. and F. 

N. V. Seliloveg, Sslilosg, Selrtovg* 

A. Sakrtovag, 6eljloag, SsXilovg. 

I Plural. Neut. 

N. A. V. GeXxlova, fieXTloa, SsXitca. 

6. The nominative contracted, is then declin- 
ed regularly ; as, 

eug, spring, by contraction r\g, G. %gog, D. ^gv, &c. 

Xfaxg, a stone, ^a?, G. laog, D. Aai', &c. 

Obs. 2. And if vowels concur in the oblique cases, they 

are moreover contracted in the usual way ; thus, 'HgaxMng, 

Hercules, is contracted into c Hgaxlr[g, and then declined and 

i contracted as follows, 

N. 'Hoaxing, 

G. 'Hgocxleog, Coiltr. 'Hgaxlovg, 
D. 'Hguxlt'C, 'HgaxleX, 

A. l HgaMa, < Hgax'kri. 

V. l HgaxMg. 
4* 



42 



OF THE ARTICLE. 



§ 41, 42. 



7. In adjectives, the masculine and feminine 
assume the contraction of the neuter ; thus, 

^e^Uroag, ma& o/' honey. 

Nom. (jiE'kn6eig, /usXirdeaaa, (xsludsv. 

contr. /ueforovg, /ueXiTOvcraa, /ueknovv. 

Gen. {isIhovvtoc, [leXuovcrcrTjg, /ueXiTOvvwg, &c» 

rtfinetgj honoured. 



Nom. Ti^sig, 
contr. rtfirjg, 
Gen. iL[ir\vTog, 



Ti/Li-JiEcraa, 

Tl[ll](T(JT]g, 



Tilir\VTog, &C. 



<> 41. WORDS OF THE TFTIRD DECLENSION TO 
BE DECLINED AND CONTRACTED. 

(N. B. The following method of practising on these exercises will direct 
the student in his preparation, e. g. evaeShs — Form the genitive ; — give the 
ru l e . — decline ;—what cases contract the concurrent vowels ? — give the rule ; 
— decline and contract, giving the rule for each contraction. This exercise 
should be continued till the student is perfectly ready and at ease in the 
whole process.) 

sdasS^g, pious. yoacpsvg, a painter, fxld&g, modesty, 

tiuetixov, better. neoLxXirjg, Pericles, neoag, a limit. 



amxvg, a spike of corn. l%dvg, a fish. 

(jlobImv, more excellent, fto-iv, a city. 

vouevg, a shepherd. nXelcov, more. 

(pFidw, parsimony. 

f rjoac, old age. 

^/iXXevg, Achilles. 

uneQcpvng, excellent. 

tiXr/Osg, true. 

fivg, a mouse. 

fieyog, a part. 

nXtlov more. 



r/w;, the morning. 
ftaQv;, deep, 
fielitwv, better. 



TeT/og, a wall, 
dgvg, an oak. 
cpovsvg, a murderer. 
hvaidr\g, impudent, 
(pg&oig, diction. 
ogog, a mountain. 



7t8idih, persuasion. TcosdSug, old. 

^dv 9 sweet. ipdsfjg, indigent. 

n6mg, a husband. JtoMrjg, Diodes. 

%0og, custom. snog, a word, 

xigag, a horn. dgo/ueug, a runner. 



§ 42. OF THE ARTICLE. 

The article is an adjective word of three gen- 
ders. The terminations of the nominative are 
irregular. In the oblique cases the masculine 
and neuter genders are of the second declension ; 



§43. 



DIALECTS OF THE ARTICLE. 



43 



the feminine is of the first. It wants the vocative, 
and is thus declined : 



N. 
G. 
D. 

A. 



Singular. 

TOO, T^C, 
t6v, Tr\v, 





Dual. 




Plural. 




TO, 


N. A. 


N. 


ol, ai, 


r&, 


TOV, 


TCO, VI, TG3, 


G. 


T&V, T&V, 


ifbv, 


T<2>, 


G. D. 


D. 


TOig, Tcdg, 


ToTg, 


TO. 


TOlJ>, TOLlV, TOi>. 


A. 


Tovg, rag, 


Tik. 



Obs. 1. The Greeks spoke definitely, by placing the article 
before the substantive ; indefinitely, by omitting it -or prefixing 
the pronoun rig ; as, 6 ai'O^jj.-iog, the man ; czvOgLOrtog, a man, 
J or ilg (jivdoctizzog, any man. • , 

Obs. 2. In grammar and lexicography, the article is used 
technically, to distinguish the gender of nouns, (§ 11. obs. 1.) 

Obs. 3. The enclitic ds annexed to the article through all 
its cases, gives it the force of the pronoun " this ;" as, ode, 
rfis, Tods, this, he, she, it; Gen. Tovde, t^oSs, Tovds ; &c. In 
Homer and the other old Epic writers, the article itself is, with 
few exceptions, used in this sense. 

Obs. 4. The article 6, ^, to, is sometimes used as a rela- 
tive. (See § 66. 2.) 

Jtfo&e. The article 6, >7, to, being commonly placed before a noun, is by 
some Grammarians Called the prepositive article, to distinguish it from the re- 
lative pronoun of, §, 5, which, from being generally placed after the noun to 
which it refers, they call the postpositive article. 



§ 43. DIALECTS OF THE ARTICLE. 

Singular. 





M. and 


N 




N 


*i 




TO. 




G. 


TOV, 


A. 


I. 


? 


I). 


T<3. 








A. 


TO//, 




10. 


i 



D. 



P. Til* 



T^G). 



Plural. 



M. and N. 
N. oi, D. Tot. neut. t&. 

G. TU^, I. T^OIV. 

D. Tor;, D. & T. wiai, I. TBOiat, P. 

TOidicrc, and TOidecrai. 
A. Tovg, D. t^3, t(5;. 



Fern. 

TTJ?, D. Xa£. 
ttJ, D. T«. 
T^, D. Td*\ 



Fern, 
dt, D. T«t. 
TO)/', D. tot^, iE. Tdwv. 
Tea,, D. & I. TaXov, ttjct^. 

TGC£. 






44 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



§ 44, 45. J 



$ 14. OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

An Adjective is a word added to a noun to 
express its quality, or to limit its signification ; 
as, ay a & 6c, avr^ a good man; a I a i]utqa, 
one day ; 

h The Accidents of the adjective are gender, number, 
and case, and in most adjectives also comparison. 

2. Adjectives in Greek, as well as Latin, indicate the gen- 
der, number,, aiid case, by the termination ; as, xal-bg, masc. 
xal-fi, fern. xal-bi>, neuter, &c. 

3. Participles have the form and declension of adjectives, 
while in time and signification they belong to the verb. 

4. Some adjectives denote each gender by a different termi- 
nation in the nominative, and consequently have three termi- 
nations. Some have one form common to the masculine and 
feminine, and are adjectives of two terminations; and some 
are adjectives of one termination, which is common to the 
masculine and feminine ; such want the neuter. 

5. Id adjectives of three terminations, the femiuine is always 
of the first declension. In all adjectives the masculine is al- 
ways of the second or third ; and the declension of the neuter 
is always the same with that of the masculine. 



§ 45. REGULAR ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST 
AND SECOND DECLENSION. 

1. Adjectives of the first and second declen- 
sion have the masculine always in og, the femi- 
nine always in rj or a, the neuter always in ov\ 
thus, 

xalbg, beautiful. 

Dual. Plural. 

N. A. V. N. xttX-oh -al. 



Singular. 
N. xaXbg, -^, 

G. xu).-nv, -rjg, 
D. xuI-ijj, -r ( , 
A. xaX bv, .r\v, 
V. "Aul-h, -^, 



-oO, 



-bv. 



G. D. 

xal—oTv, -aii' -oi>. 



G. xaX-ibp, -wv, -6 



D. aaX-oTg^ 

A. xaX-otig } .dig, -u, 

V. xal-ol, -u.l, -&. 

Thus decline dyudbg, good; xaxb;, bad; epilog, friendly ; /u.a- 
laxbg, soft; levxbg, white; br(kog. manifest; dnalbg, tender; 
tequvbg, pleasant. 



§45. 



REGULAR ADJECTIVES, 



45 



2. But og pure, and pog, have a in the femi- 
nine ; as, 





Singular. 






Sing 


ular. 




N. 


gddi-og, -a, 


-oy, 


N. 


qxxv8g.bg, 


-*s 


-d*>, 


G. 


gadl-ov, .ag, 


-ov, 


G. 


cpaveg.ov, 


-«£, 


-ov, 


D. 


gadlcp, -a, 


-<P> 


D. 


(pavsg c2>, 


-« ? 


•% 


A. 


£k£(^.o*>, -a*>, 


.o», 


A- 


(pavsg.bv, 


-&*>, 


-oj>, 


V. 


o<£^.£, -a, 


-0^.* 


V. 


yaveg-hy 


•A 


-6y. 



The Dual and Plural like' xulbg. 

JEiXC. The terminations -oog, and sometimes 'eog, especially in 
adjectives denoting matter and colour, retain *h as, oydoog, the 
eighth, oydorj ; blob g, pernicious, <Uo?j ; xgtiaeog, golden ; xgvaij]' 
cpovvixeog, purple, (poivixsrj. Except where £ stands before the 
vowel ; as, ddgbog, frequent, ddgoa ; agyvgeog, silver, agyvgea. 

3. The Attics often decline adjectives in -og } 
especially derivatives and compounds, by the 
common gender, without the feminine termina- 
tion ; thus, 









Singular. 












Masc. and Fern. 


Neut. 




N. 6 ^ 


dddvawg, 


to, dddvaxov. 




G. tov, vf\g, 


tov, ddav&TOV, 






D. TQ, TTJ, 


t&, ddavdnp, 






A. TOV, TtfV, 


to, dOdvawv, 






V. & 




0\d&V(XT8, 

Dual. 


3), dddvawv. 


N. 


rd, 


T(b, ddav&TW. 






G. D. toTv, 


ralv, 


toiv, adav&TOiv 
Plural. 


• 




N. V. ol, 


*hm 


dOdvaWV, 


xd, dddvaTa. 




G. TWV, 


mv, 


t&v, adav&TWv 






D. wig, 


xalg, 


Tolg, ddavdxovg, 




A. TOvg, 


tbg, 


ddavdxovg, t&, dOdvaTa, 








Or thus, 






Singular. 




Dual. 


Plural. 


N. 


dddvaT-og-og-ov 




N. A. V. 


N. 


dOdvaT-ov -ov -a, 


G. 


dcOccv&T-ov -ov -ov 


o\dav&r-co -w -w 


G. 


ddavdr-wv -cov -oav, 


D. 


aOav6.x-ty -o) -o) 




G. D. 


D. 


ddavdx-oig -ovg -ovg, 


A. 


dddrax-ov .ov-ov 


adavdi-ovv -ovv -oiv 


A. 


dOavdx-ovg -ovg -a, 


V. 


ud&vai-e -8 -ov 






Y. 


dddvaT-ov -ov -a. 



46 ADJECTIVES OF FIRST AND THIRD DECLENSIONS. § 46 

In the same manner decline 

6, -^ 7t& t uq)ilog y to no\ij,cpikov y from nav and epilog, 

6, ^ 6\diK0S) to (idixov* from diK^. 

6 y t\ otiooLvibg, to ovqavLOVy from otiqavbg. 

6, i^ b\uogog, to o/uooov, from ofiog and ttgog. 

Note. Though this form of declension is most used by the Attic writers, 
ft is not confined to them. Instances of it occur in Home r. 







§ 46. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND THIRD 
DECLENSIONS. 

The masculine and neuter of all adjectives not 
ending in -og, are of the third declension. 

The regular terminations of these are, 



M. 


F. 


N. 




1. ag, 


extra, 


av. 




2. g£g, 


£<T(Ta, 


ev. 




• 3. us, 


eca, 


v; 


thus, 


1. Example of 


an Adjective in ag, 
/tf£/lag, black. 


atra, av. 




Singular 


. 




N. fi£l-ag 9 


,tt^-0f^«, 


/uiX-av, 




G. fiil-avog, 


[isl-atvTjg, 


[i6l-avog, 




D. [i&l-avi,, 


/tisl-atvrjy 


/uiX-avt,, 




A. /uil-ava, 


/uil-aipccv, 


fiH-ctv, 




V. jtitX-av, 


/uiX-oMva, 
Dual. 


[i£X-av. 


■ 


N. A. V. fdX-ave, 


^eX-a/ya, 


/nil-are, 


- 


G. D. [lek-dLvoiv, 


fieh-alvaiv, 
Plural. 


llB"k-6iV0lV % 




N- V. juil-ocveg, 


fi4X-aivav 9 


/uiX-avot, 




G. /ueX-&pojv, 


/usl-ouvibv, 


/ueX-dvojv, 




D. fiiX-acri', 


fieX-alvavg^ 


/u£X-ao~t, 9 § 


6. 16.. 


A. [i£l-avag, 


/uek-cclvag, 


ju£L.ava. 


1 



§ 46, ADJECTIVES OF FIRST AND THIRD DECLENSIONS. 47 

2. Example of an Adjective in -ug, -arcra, -ev. 

%api6ig, comely. 

Singular. 

N. X^ql-Big^ yagi-Ecrfra, yagl-EV, 

G. yagl-Evrog, y(tgi-i(Tcn]g, yagl-EVTog, § 23. 2. 

D. yaql-Evxi^ yagi-iau^ yaql-Evji,, 

A* %agl-evTa, yagt-ECfuav^ yagt-ev, 

V. yagt-£v } yagt-sacra, yagl-Ev m 

Dual. | 
N. A. V. yagt-sviE, yagi-svaa, yagi-EVTS, 
G. D. yagi-ivTOiv ^ yagi-iuuaiv^ yagv-ivjovv \ 

Plural. 
N. V. /aql-EVTeg, yagl-EO&ai, yccgl-Evza, 
G. yagi-svTQjv, /aoi-sao&Vy yagi-ivxtov^ 
D* yaoi-ELVi, yagi-iuuaig^ yagl-Eioi) § 6. 18. 
A. yagi-Evxug^ yugi-aooag, yagl-svia, 

Obs. According to Butt man adjectives in -Eig (but not parti- 
ciples) have -em and not -eioi in the dative plural. Prof. 
Anthon adopts the same termination. When so used it must 
be regarded as an exception to the general rule. 

3. Example of an Adjective in -ug, -sta, -v. 
fiSrg, sweet. 

Singular. 



N. 


ifi-vg^ 


^d-ETa, 


^U, 


G. 


fid-eog, 


ffi-Elag, 


rid-iog, 


D. 


^(5-fct 5 contr. -si, 


r^d EiCC, 


rfi.E'C, contr. -«r, 


A. 


r\o-vv 9 or -£a,* 


7]$-ETaV) 


^<M, 


V- 


%M, 


ffi-ETU) 

Dual. 


r\d-v. 


N. A. V. 


rfi-iE,, 


f(d.Et(X, 


fld-is, 


G. D. 


ffi~bOLV. 


r\O.EluLV) 

Plural. 


rfi.eoiv. 


N. V. 


rfi-iEg, contr. Eig, 


ffi-ETou, 


^-ea,not contr. t 


G. 


Tjd'iojv^ 


rid-EiWV, 


rid-iwv, 


D. 


ffi-ioL, 


ffi-Elaig, 


fld.iai, 


A. 


fld-eag, contr. Eig, 


ffi-Elag, 


^d-ia^not contr. 


4 


Sec § 24. R. 2. 


t 


See § 40 R, 3 Exc. 



48 



DECLENSION OF PARTICIPLES. 



§ 47. 



After the same manner decline, 
1. 3. 



-<*£, 


-GUVOt, 


-av. 


ylvx-vg. 




-v. 

-V 




2. 




@ag-vg, 


-£?«, 


-V 


,«T(S-fic, 


-soua. 


-FV. 


fiuO-'vg, 


-era, 


-v. 


n~ EL ^ 


-SO(J(X y 


-EV. 


o|-?)c, 


-eta, 


-v, 



</fx 



§ 47. DECLENSION OF PARTICIPLES. 

Participles are declined like adjectives of three terminations : 
those of the middle and passive in -og,are inflected throughout 
like xalbg, § 45. 1. Of others, the feminine always follows 
the terminations of the first declension, and the masculine and 
neuter, those of the third, the genitive being always formed as di- 
rected, § 23. Obs. 1. The terminations of these are as follows : 



Gen. 





M. 


F. 


N. 


h 


-G>J>, 


-Oftfa, 


-0*>. 


2, 




-aa«, 


-«y. 


3. 


-<bs, 


-uTu, 


-0£. 


4. 


-etg, 


-UdfXy 


-iv. 


r>. 


-ovg, 


-0V<70C y 


-te % 


G. 


-*9, 


-vaa, 


-t>v. 



M. 


F. 


N. 


-OJTO£, 


-OVGljC) 


-O^TOC, &C. 


-«*T0£, 


-aa V g, 


-aviog, &C. 


-6wg, 


-vltxg, 


-droc, &c. 


-svTog, 


-Stffjfg, 


-snog, &c. 


-6vTog y 


-ovaqg, 


-d^zo;, &c. 


-vvTog, 


-vcr?]g, 


-urrog, &c. 



Of these the 1st and 3d are declined as examples; thus, 

1. vvtclw, having struck. (2 Aor. Act.) 

Singular. 

TV7T-0VOU 
lV7l-0(jU7\g 

TVTZ-OVOUV 

Dual. 
N. A. V. ibn-ovjs TVTC.ovca 

Tvn-ouaatv 

Plural. 
tv n-ovoav 
rvn.ovdcbv 
jVTT.ouaaig 

TV7t-0lL)G(Xg 



N. 


V. 


Tun-oiv 




G. 


xvn-ovTO; 




D. 


Tun-ova, 




A. 


iin-oviu 


.A 


. V. 


Turt-OVTS 


G 


D. 


Tvn-hvTOiv 


N 


V. 


Tvrt-OPieg 




G. 


TVn-6fTO)f 




D. 


xim-ovai, 




A. 


ivn-ovxag 



1V71 OV, 

ivn-oviog, 

TV7T-OVT*, 

TV71-OV. 



TVTC-0VT8, 
TVTt-6vT0lV. 



TVTt-OPTCC, 
TVTt-6viQ)V, 
Ti)7l-0V(Ji,) § 6. 18. 
TVTt-OVTCC. 



In this manner are declined all participles which have v be 
fore -jog in the genitive. 



§ 48. ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 49 



3. tetvfy-Gg. having struck 


(Perf. Act.) 




Singular. 




N. V. 


TSivcp-ihg, -via, 


-09, 


G. 


TETvcp-oiog, -via;, 


-oiog, 


D. 


TSlVCf-OTV, -1/tOt, 


-6ti, 


A. 


TSivcp-ora, -vlav, 
Dual. 


-bg. 


N. A. V. 


TSTvy-OTS, .via, 


-&Z8, 


G. D- 


TSTvcp-oroiv, -vlaiv, 
Plural. 


-OTOIV. 


N. V. 


Tsrvcp-oieg, -vlai, 


-oza, 


G. 


TSTVCp-OTCOP, -vi&v, 


-OTWV, 


D. 


Tsrvcp-oai, -viaig, 


-OCJi, § 6. 8. 


A. 


TSjvcp-oxag, -vlag, 


.ora. 



The participle in -cog, after a Syncope, (§ 101. 7.) has 
*fom. and Voc. ~(bg, -wcr«, -tig. G. -wro? ? -dxjqg, -wto£, &c. 



§ 48. ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 

Many adjectives of the third declension have but one form 
for the masculine and feminine, and are therefore said to be 
declined according to the common gender. They are declined 
throughout like nouns of the third declension, of the same 
termination. The regular terminations of these are cop, ?]v, r\g, 
ig, vg, and ovg, (viz. compounds of novg ;) and they form the 
neuter according to the following 

RULES. 

1. Adjectives of the common gender in -wk, ^yjv f 

-yjg : form the neuter by changing the long vowel 
into its own short one ; thus, 

N. o, ^, oihrpgcov, to acbcpgop, prudent, G. crtocpgov-og. 
N. 6, 17, agoijv, to aggev, male, G. aggev -og,* 

N. 6, r\. titXi]Qr)g, to ulijdtg, true, G. cxlrjde -og. 

So also some in -ow ; as, * 

N. 6, i), fisyaX^nag^ to JueyulrjTOQ, G. ixsyal^ioQ-og. 

Note. But zigrjv, tender, usually has the feminine ri<)8wa 9 
aeuter tbosv. 

5 



50 



ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 



§43. 



2. Adjectives of the common gender in tg and 
v$i form the neuter by rejecting g ; as, 

N. u, ?5, ev/aoig. to sti/ugi, G. evx&gi-Tog. 
N. o, -$, (xdotxgvg, to adaxgv, G. adaxgv-og. 

3. Compounds of 7toi>g, a foot ; have the neu- 
ter in -ouv ; as, 

N. 6, ^, dtrtovg, to dlnovv, G. dlTtod-og, § 23. 1. 

iVote. It is probable this word was originally -rroog ; whence o, h, Si-noos^ 
rd diiroov, contracted Sinovs, Si-rrow ; and that the declension was afterward 
changed from the 2d to the 3d, as was done also in ye\(x)$, and fyw?, from 
the ancient ysXaos, and spaog. 



Examples of Adjectives 


of the common ge:> 


der.* 






• 


1. 6, % co)<ppcdv 7 prudent. 




2. 6, ri, dH^Oyis, Jruc. 


Singular. 






Singular. 


N. CT(bqiQ-OJV 9 -wv 9 


-OF, 


N. 


fU^drijg, -*J£, -i-, 


G. o&cpg-ovog, -ovog, 


-0^0£ ? 


G. 


ah/O-sog, -eog, -tog, 


D. (nbcpg-ovi, -ovi, 


-of*, 


D. 


uXrjO-i'iy -fc't', .&', 


A. <J(bq)Q-ora, -ova 9 


.o//, 


A. 


dli]6ia 9 .£«, -££, 


V. crwcpg-ov, ~ov, 


-0*>. 


V. 


ulrjd.eg, .eg, -ig. 


Dual. 






Dual. 


N. A. V. 






N. A. V. .-| 


0~(b(pQ-Ove, -OPS, 


-0F£, 




alijO.ie, .if, .£e 9 


G. D. 






G. D. 


owyg-ovoiv, -bvoiv, 


-6^o(^. 




dXrjO-zoiv, -ioiv, .ioiv. 


Plural. 






Plural. 


N. u&cpq-oveg, -oveg, 


-ova, 


N. 


ah]0 eeg, -6£C, -S'a, 


G. 0~OKfiO-6t'0)V, .t)Vi))V, 


-oVw*', 


G. 


ulrjQ-eojv, -eW, -eW, 


D. (ju)cpn-orjc, -om, 


-ocri,, 


D. 


alr/O.ioi, .ecn, -iai, 


A. ouyg-ovag, -ovug, 


-ova, 


A. 


dki]6-iag 9 -ea£, -£*a, 


V. atixpo-oveg, -oveg, 


-ova. 


V. 


akrjd-ieg, J eg, -£*a. 

| 



* These adjectives may be declined by means of the article o, as dOava- 
-oj, § 45. 3. Thus, N. o, j?, aotypuV) to auxftpov, G. rot;, rrjc;, ro£, ao)(J>povos f t. 
to, rjj, rw, cru)<ppovi } &C. 



§49. 



OF IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 



51 



3. 6, n, ei'^apig, acceptable. 

Singular. 

G. sv/dcg-iiog, -nog, -nog, 

D. ^U/CiO-iTt, -*W, -tT*, 

A. stj/dg.na, -tr«, -t, 

V. ev/ag-i,, -*, -*. 

Dual. 
N. A. V. 

£v/do-£Te, -mc, -n:£, 

G. D. 

ev/aQ Ixoiv, .how, -Itoiv. 

Plural. 

N. ev/ijcg-nsg, -'W 5 -via, 

G. ev/ag-tjoiv, -Itwv, .Itcop, 

D. evyuo-Mji, .igi, .tut, 

A. Bv/ag.nag, .nag , -na, 

V. sd/do.iTeg, .neg, -na. 



4. 6, ri, d<5a#pt>g, tearless. 

Singular. 

N. ftdaxg.vg, -vg, .v, 

G. d#d?co-t>oc, -foe, -fog, 

D. ddd*o-ui', .v'C, -v'C, 

A. ddaxg-vp, -vp, .v, 

V. Ccdaxg-u, .v, -u. 
Dual. 

N. A. V. 

dJd^o.vp, -ve, -ve, 
G. D. 

dJafco-uot/', .voir, .voip. 

Plural. 

N. 6.d&xg-veg, -veg, .i/«, 

G. adaxg-iwp -vmp, -vojp, 

D. adaxg-vvi, -vvi, -vat,, 

A. ad&xg.vag, -vag, -va, 

V. ad&xg-veg, -vsg, -va. 



§ 49. OF IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 

Every adjective not ending in some of the 
regular terminations already mentioned, is irre- 
gular. It always wants the neuter gender, and is 
declined like a noun of the 3d declension; thus, 



N. o, ^, aojza 



G. tov, Trj£, agnixyog, &c. 

Ohs. The poets sometimes use the genitive and dative of 
such adjectives in the neuter. Sometimes the neuter is sup- 
plied by a derivative form in -ov ; thus, ugnaxnxov is used as 
the neuter of ugna^ ; GIclxtixop, as the neuter of 6ld^, &c. 

Exc. «1. Ix&v and o\exo)p, (by syncope ftxcov) are declined 
with three genders like participles ; thus, 

if N. hx~(bp, tx-ovcroc, hx-6p, 

G. Ix.opwg, Ix-ovurig, hx-bvxog, &C. 

The adjective nag, all, is also declined like the participle in 
, «s ; thus, 



52 



ADJECTIVES TO BE DECLINED. 



§ 50. 



N. 7tag 9 naaa, nav, 

G. navxbg, n&arjg, Ttavxbg, &c. 
Exc. 2. /uiyag, great, and noXvg, many, are irregular in the 
nominative and accusative singular. The other cases are re- 
gularly formed from the ancient nominatives pey&log and noX- 
Xbg, of the 2d declension ; thus, 
Singular. 
M. F. N. 

N. fiiyag, (isyuXrj, fieya, 
G. /usy&Xov, fieydl^g, /usy&Xov, 
D. /usy&lu), /tisyuX^ /uey&Xcp, 
A. {Lfsyap, fieyaXrjv, [isya. 

Dual. 
N. A. V. /usy&lw, /usy&Xa, /usydXoj. 



Singular. 

M. # F. N. 

noXvg, noXX^ noXv, 
noXXov, noXXiyg, noXXov, 
TloXXty, TtoXXrj, TtoXXti, 

noXyp, 7toXX?ip, noXv, 

Dual. 
7toXXd>, tioXX6l, noXXd)y &c 



through the dual and plural, like xaXbg. 

JVb£e. Homer and other poets inflect no\vs regularly, Gen. -rroXfog, Daf. 
TroXfA, &.c. It was afterwards changed, in those cases in which it would not 
be distinguished from the same cases of 7rdXt?, a city. 

Obs. Some substantives in -ccg and -r\g, inflected in the first 
declension, are called by Grammarians, adjectives ; as, iSqiaxJ\g 9 
an insolent man; xgavpaxlag, a wounded man ; but they are real- 
ly independent of any other substantives in construction. The 
same observation may be applied to several other words, called 
adjectives of one termination. ly , 



§ 50. ADJECTiyES TO BE DECLINED. 



na7t.bg, -^, -6*>; bad. 
T&X-ag, -cava, .ap, miserable 
fiuo-v;, -sla, -u, heavy. 
o, ij, T&orjv, to x&qsp, tender. ' 
b,J{, rvazGri;, »kg, pious, 
b, V), ftslrl&y, -op, belter. 
Tt,ur\-ei,;, -soaa, -ev, honoured, 
b, f\, aihxog, -op, unjust. 
&£«>;, -a, -op, worthy, 

b, j\ y (pdbjTaTOig, -i, patriotic. 
6, 17, noXvrtovg, -ovp, many-footed 
b, r\, fi&xao, happy. 

@a0-vg, ~ela, .-b, deep. 
6, ^, fieltyv, -ov, greater 



cpo6eg-bg, -a, op, formidable. 
dtyotObg, -?], .op, good. 
6, 17, /LtaxooxeiQ, long-handed 
6, -$, xaXXtwp, -ov, more beauti- 
ful, 
xax'vg, -sla, -v, swift. 
yX^-sig, -sacra, -sv, sonorous, 
cplX-og, -tj, -op, friendly. 
6, 17, ixpt\uwp, -op, mindful. 
6, f\, uc\u^g, -eg, unconquered 
6, f\, cpvyag, an exile. 

yXvx-vg, sla, -i>, sweet. 
Q&dwg, -a, -ov, easy. 
6, ri auxpgcov, -ov, wise. 



^ 



§ 51, 52. GENERAL RULE. 53 

§51. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives have three degrees of comparison, 

the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. 

The Positive expresses a quality simply ; the Comparative 
asserts it in a higher or lower degree in one object than in ano- 
ther ; and the Superlative, in the highest or lowest degree com- 
pared with several ; thus, gold is .heavier than silver ; it is the 
most precious of metals. Hence those adjectives only can be 
compared whose signification admits the distinction of more 
and less. 



§ 52. GENERAL RULE. 

The comparative degree is formed by adding 
•repog to the positive, and the superlative by add- 
ing -raroj ; thus, 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

U&xcxq, juaxoLQ-jegog, (tayAo-TaTog. 

evvovg, e-vvovg-Tegog, evvovg-Tajog. 

y.axovovg, ' xaxovova-xegog, xaxovovo~-T(xrog. 

&7il6og.un;lovg, anloucr-Ttgog, unlovo-Tajog. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1. -etg rejects i ; as, 

/uglsig, %(xgi£(T~TEQog, /agtecr-Taiog. 

2. -og rejects g; and also, after a short sylla- 
ble, changes o into o; thus, 

bgObg, . oodo-TFgog, ogOo-iaiog, 

dlxaiog, dcxaio-Tegog, dcxato-iaiog. 

novrjqoZ) novjjQo-TeQog, novrjOo-Tazog. 

Oavuuoibg, Oavuuaio-Tegog, Oavixaoxo-iaiog m 

drfiog, dr/Xo-Ttgog, dijlo.iixiog. 

-a; after a short syllable. 

votybg, uocp6-Tegog, ooq)(b'Tarog. 
XEvbg, xevti-Tegog, xevcb-TocTog. 
cpo6egbg, cpoOeg^-fegog, yoGegti-zawg. 
cpavegbg, cpGtvegf&-T8Qog 9 qiavegoi-raiog. 
'/ri'Lsrcbg, /uleji(j)-cegog y %aleTid)-Tazog. 
Obs. The change of o into oj, is made to prevent the con- 
currence of four short syllables. Hence o, after a doubtful 

5* 

s 



54 COMPARISON BY -IMV AND -WTog. § 53. 

vowel considered lonrr, remains unchanged ; but if considered 
short, the o is changed into w ; thus, eVii.aog, has evrifioregog ; 
and lanugo; has la/vgoregog ; because. t and v are considered j 
long ; but ayoio; has <x.yguhiegog ; and Ixavbg, Ixavtiiegog, &c, I 
because the << and a are considered short. 

3. -ag, -575, and -ug, add to the neuter gender; as, 

/using, /LteXaiva, /uilav ; {uel&v-zegog, &c. 

ev(T66^g y evoe6r[g, evas6sg ; evae6eo-Tegog, &c. 

evgvg, stigeTa, etigv ; £tfot>-Tfooc, &c. 

4. -aw and -^ add to the nominative plural 
masculine ; as, 

(xtyQojr, N. P. acpgovsg, acpgovicr-TFgog, &c. 

Tegrjv, " regheg, jegeveo-'iegog, &c. 

_E;rc. But nenwv makes nenatiegog, &c. and 7ilcov,—7Ti6i£gog, 
mdTcnog. 



§ 53. COMPARISON BY -Aw AND .«rios. 

1. Some adjectives in -og, derived from sub- 
stantives, are compared by -iuv and -tcrog. In 
these the comparison is made, not from the ad- 
jective, but from the substantive from which it 
is derived ; thus, 

xalbg, beautiful, from x&Xlog, beauty, xalllwv, x6Xkiaiog. 

l'/0gbg, inimical, i/Obg, enmity, i/Olaiv, lydioiog. 

olxTobg, compassionate, olxiog, compassion, oImLudv, ol'xnoTog. 

ulo/gbg, base, alo%og, baseness, alcr%twv 9 aVa/Lcnog. 

/uaxgbg, long, p^xog, length, {irjxlwr, fi^xiaiog, 

2. Some in -vg are compared both ways ; as, 

BuOvg, deep, (taduTsgog, fiudviajog. 

and ftudluv, fihdiuTog. 

In like manner compare Pgadvg, slow ; rcc/vg, swift ; 7ta%ug, 
thick; ylvxvg, sweet; &xv;, quick; &c. 

3. pahtog, easy, has paujv, patarog] or, with i 
subscribed, pdav, pdarog. 



Note. Some of these, and of others compared in this way, are occasional- 
y found compared by -rtpos and -raros. 



5 54, 55. 



DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 



55 



§ 54. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 
The following adjectives are irregular in their 



comparison ; viz. 

agetotW, 

fielxtwv, 

iyauog, °;ood,< ,*;, 



(psgxegog, 



, i 7 ( xaxlaiv. 

tog, bad. I , ' 

\ ye [guv, 



uyad&xaxog, from aasvog. pleasant* 
agioxog, from"-4qrjg, JXlars. 

from Goiloaav, I wish. 

from xgaxvg, brave. 

from A©, for Oilw, 1 wish. 



fieXxicrxog, 

xgaxiuxog , 

Iticrxog, 

opsoxaxog, 

qpegiaxog, 

cpsgxicrxog, 

xaxioxog. 

ystgioxog. 

fueyiaxog. 

nlsTorTog. 

H&yioxog. 



from cpigco, I bear. 



fieyag, great, {uet'Qwp, 

nolv;, many, ttIsIojv, 

ikayvg, small, el&o-awv, 

Itixgbg, little, ijacrw^j or /uetwp, or {itxgoxegog ; [iixgoxaxog. 



§ 55. DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 

Some adjectives in the comparative and superlative degree, 
have no positive, but are formed from 



fiuoilevg, 
xegdog, 
J Bebg, 
xXijtirjg, 

xvdo;, 

XlblV, 
7ilr t xxi]g, 

7lOTT]g, 

fug, 



a-oibg, 





1. nouns; as, 




a king; 
gain ; 
God; 
a thief; 
glory ; 


ftauilevxegog, 

xegdlwv, 

Oemegog, 

xvdtwv, 


fiacrilevxaxog. 
xegdio-jog. 

xlsTTTtcriaxog. 
xvdvcrxog. 


a dog ; xuviegog, 

a striker ; 

a drinker ; 

cold, rigor; giylwv, 

a thief ; 




nlrjxxlrnaxog. 
noxloxaxog. 
glyiUTog. 
(pojgoiaiog. 




2. pronoun ; 


as, 




self; 






afii6xaxog. 




3. PARTICIPLE 


; as, 




strong ; 


i$g(jm€r£o 


Tsgog, 


£ggct) i uevio~xaxoQ. 



56 

aru), 
acpag, 

XOCTlx), 
07ll(J(x), 

rtgWty 

Vlpl, 



DIALECTS OF COMPARISON. 



§56 



7100, 

-bnhg, 



tip ; 
immediately 

near ; 

out ; 
down ; 

in ; 
back ; 
beyond ; 
far ; 
early ; 
highly ; 

5. 

before ; 
over ; 



4. adverbs ; as, 

&v(b-Tsqog, -jaiog. 
acp&g-regog, 

ityyv-TSoog, i .jaiog 

iyy-iix)r, \ -lorog. 

e^d-regog, -imog. 

XaTib-TFQOg, -TCtjog. 

£ad)~T£Qog, -jaiog. 

bmu(b isgog, .jaiog. 

TTSQttl-TeQOg, -TttTOC. 

TtOOqti-TSQOgj -TCCTOg, 

7iq<jihat-T8gog y -Tonog. 
vipiorog 



TRErosiTioNS ; as, 

ng6-Tegog, ngo-Tcnog, whence nomog. 



vrtig-iegog, VTZBQ.jaTog, whence VTKXTOg. 

Some comparatives and superlatives are again compared; as, 

XwImp, better, Xwi'Ttgog. 

f(s[o)v } less, /uswTFQog. 

gawv, easier, to gaoxegov. 

xaXXtop, more beautiful, to xaXXubzegov. 

YFpelwv. ) i to yeosLoieoov. 

/ worse < i $ 

%elgwv, j f and yeigoregov. 

/eloiorog, worst, ^ yeigio-joiegn. 

TivdiUTog^ most glorious, xvdloTarog. 

ihiyiaxoz, least, iXvcgiaioTegog. 

rrgmiog, first, nowTlmog. 

Some words ending in i\g, of the first declension, are corn- 
pared ; thus, (see § 49. Obs.) 

tfjf?o*0TT}£, an insolent man, -uftgio-To.Tegog, .Taiog. 

nXeovixrtjg, an avaricious man. nXeorexTtcnajog. 






§ 5G. DIALECTS OF COMPARISON. 

1. The Attics compare many adjectives in -og, -7jg, and I, 
by -Lo-renog rloKxTog, .alzeoog .alraTog, a.nd-£o~T£gog-£oTaTog ; as, 

h&Xog, loquacious, Xulla-rrgog, -Tarog. 

epilog, friendly, (pihd.Tegog, -Tarog. 

by Syncope, cptX-r&gog, -racog and cptfoarog. 

anovdaXog, diligent, onovduiio-Teoog, -jajog. 



§ 57. 



NUMERALS. 



57 



acpdovog, not envying, acpdovea-Tegog, -rarog, 

nalaiOQ } old, nakal-Tegog, -rarog. 

yeguibg, an old man, yegai-regog, .rarog, 

ao.Trxl, rapacious, dgnaylcr-Tsgog, -rarog. 

nl.Boviy.Trig, avaricious, nlsovsxrla-TBgog, -t«toc. 
ipevdijg, false, ipevdi'a.Tegog, -rarog, 

2. Dialects of particular comparatives and superlatives, are, 
for xgeloowv, I. and D. xgevawv, better ; /elgwp, P. zegeicov, I. 
dat. zigifi} ace. x^ or i a ^ nom. plur. xigyeg ; — fielfynv, I. /uitojp, 
D. (iidaacop, greater; with others which may be learned by 
practice in reading. 



§ 57. NUMERALS, 

Numbers are of two classes, the Cardinal and 
the Ordinal. The Cardinal answer to the ques- 
tion, how many? as, one,two, &c. The Ordinal 
answer to the question, which of the number'? 
^ first, second, third, &c. 

Distributives have no separate form in Greek. The mean- 
ing of these is expressed by the cardinal numbers, sometimes 
compounded with ovv ; as, avvdvo, ovvrqeig &c. ; bini, terni ; 
— and sometimes preceded by vara, drd, &c. 

I. THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 

1. Efg, one, has the singular number only, and 
is thus declined ; 

N. Big, pla, e*>, 

G. evbg, (mag, tvog, 

D. tvl, fiva, kvl, 

A. era, plav, tv. 

In like manner the two compounds, 

ovS-elg, odde-iitix, oud-er, plur. ovd-ersg, -e/tiiat,, -iva. 
fjir t d-eig, /uqde-fiiot, /Li?jd-£y, „ fjtrjd.eveg, -efilai, .eVa. 

Obs. 1. From eFg, one, is formed the adjective hsgog, either, 
one, other ; and from ovdelg, /^toe/are formed otidfregog, firj- 
hegog, neither. 

Obs. 2. Elg is sometimes used for the ordinal nqmog, as 
Matth. 28. 1. Mark 16. 2. This is usually considered a He- 



n 



58 



NUMERALS. 



§ 57. 



braism, but it is sometimes used by the Greeks also ; Herod 
iv. 161, Thucyd. iv. 115. Also in Latin, Cic. Sen. 5. " Uik> 
et octogessimo Anno." 

2. AiVj, two, has properly the dual only ; thus, 

N. A. Sua), ) r n j 

^ t^ <> I i * ~ > for all genders. 
Or. D. avoir and ovslv, ) => 

Obs. 3. The plural forms, G. dv&v, D. dvvl, are sometimes 
used ; d6o, two, is indeclinable ; aucpco y both, is declined like 
dvw. 

3. Tpelg, three, and revorapsg, four, are thus de 
clined, 

Plur. rgelg, three. 
N. A. rgslg, jgslg, rota, 



G. 


TQlUiV, 


rgbtiv,' 


rgtibv, 


D. 


TQMJ}, 


rgivl, 


Tgicrl. 




Plur. 


T&aoagsg, four. 


N. 
G. 


Tiaaaqsg, 
Tscro-ikguw, 


Tecrcragsg, 
Teora&gwv, 


rio oaga, 
Teo~cr&goL)v f 


D. 


Tioaagcrv, 


Te&cragcn, 


ikooagoi, 


A. 


Tscroagag, 


Tsaoagag, 


recrcraga. 



4. The Cardinal numbers from 7thte i Jive, to 
emtbv, a hundred, are indeclinable., 

5. After sxatbv the larger numbers are regu- 
lar plural adjectives of the first and second de- 
clension ; as, 

N. 

diaxhoiay 

Tgiax6oia, 

/(ha, 

dicr/tlia, 

[lugia, 

dca/uvgioc, 

Obs. 4. In the composition of numbers, either the smaller 
precedes, and the two are joined byxai; or the greater pre- 
cedes, in which case the xal is generally omitted >; thus, Tchxe 
xal el'xorji, or eXxoov nivxs, twenty-Jive ; niuTtiog xal elxoaidg, 
or elxoaibg niuTtTog, twenty-fifth. When three numbers are 
reckoned together, the greatest comes first, and so on in sue- 



M. 


F. 


diaxbvioi, 


diaxdaiat,, 


Tgiaxocrioi, 

ytlioi, 

dicr/llioi, 


jgiaxooiav 

%Q*iai, 

dioylXiai^, 


ItvOlOly 

diOfiCgtoi'm 


[ivguxi, 
diauvQicu, 



two hundred, 
three hundred, 
a thousand, 
two thousand, 
ten thousand, 
twenty thousand. 



§ 58, 59. ORDINAL NUMBERS. 59 

cession, with the conjunction nai ; as, vr\eg hxaxbv xal el'xocri, 
xal hnxd, a hundred and twenty-seven ships. 

Obs. 5. Instead of the numbers compounded with eight or 
nine, more frequent use is made of the circumlocution hog (or 
jtaag) diopiog, &c. thus vr\sg [xiag diovoav eVxoav, twenty ships 
wanting one, i. e. nineteen ships ; area dv&v diovia el'y.oai, twenty 
years wanting two, i. e. eighteen years. 






§ 58. II. ORDINAL NUMBERS. 

The Ordinal numbers are formed from the Cardinal. All 
under 20, except second, seventh, and eighth, end in *rog ; from 
20 upwards all end in -oaiog, and, in their inflection, are re- 
gular adjectives of the first and second declension ; thus, 

TTOCOTOC, 7TQfJ)TV, TIQ&TOV, first. 

(ngozegog, ngoiega, tiqotbqop, first of the tiVO.) 

devTSoog, devxega, dsvrsgov, second, 

rgtrog, toIttj, tqItov, &c. third. 

Obs. 1. In order to express half, or fractional numbers in 
money, measures, and weights, the Greeks used words com- 
pounded of r\ai, half, and the name of the weight, &c. (pa, 
66ol6g,T(jdavTov,) having the adjective termination or, vov, atov, 
appended to it, and placed before the Ordinal number, of which 
the half is taken ; as, tqit<xv r^analavTov^ 2^ talents', i. e. the 
first a talent, the second a talent, the third a half talent, and 
so of others. In like manner the Latin Sestertius, 2£ Jlsses 
-by Syncope from Semistertius ; the first an As, the second 
an As, the third a half As, {tertius semis). 

From this must be distinguished the use of the same com- 
pound word in the plural, preceded by the Cardinal number ; 
thus, TQta 7\aiT<!ilavia, not 2£ talents, but 3 half talents, or one 
and a half. 

Obs. 2. From the Ordinal numbers are formed numerals 
in -alog, expressing " on what day ;" as, devxegaXog, on the 
second day ; jgiralog, on the third day, &c. 



§ 59. OF THE GREEK NOTATION OF 
NUMBERS. 

The Greeks used the letters of the alphabet, to denote num. 
ers, in three different ways. 



6l 



NOTATION OF NUMBERS. 



§59. 



1 . To express a small series of numbers, each letter was 
reckoned according to its order in the alphabet ; as, A, 1, B,*2 9 
E, 5, /2, 24. In this manner the books of Homer's Iliad 
and Odyssey are distinguished. The technical syllable HNT, 
will assist the memory in using this kind of notation ; for if 
the alphabet be divided into four equal parts, H will be the 
first letter of the second part, that is 7 ; TV, of the third, or 13 ; 
and T of the fourth, or 19. 

2. The capital letters were used, in denoting larger series 
Df numbers, thus ; J, 1, II for Tibvxs, 5, d for dtxa, 10, H for 
Hexaior, 100, X for */*«h, 1000, and M for u<>qiol 10,000. A 
large II round any of these characters, except I, denoted five 
times as much as that character represented ; as, [Th 50. 

3. To express the 9 units, the 9 tens, and the 9 hundreds, 
the Greeks divided the alphabet into three parts ; but, as there 
are only 24 letters, they used g, called entcnj/uov, for 6 ; C , or 
2^, called xotttux, for 90 ; and 9, called oavm, for 900. In 
using this kind of notation, the memory will be assisted by 
the technical syllable A IP ; that is, A\ denotes 1 ; /', 10 ; and 
P', 100. It is to be observed, also, that all the numbers under 
1000, are denoted by letters with a small mark like an accent, 
over them ; and that a. similar mark placed under any letter, 
denotes that it represents so many thousands. 

TABLE OF NUMERALS. 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

30 



Cardinal. 


Ordinal. • 


a' 


eh 


it purrs. 


P 


Svo 


6evTcpog. 


/ 


rpels t 


rptros. 


<r 


rcaaapci 


TcrapTog. 


e 


rcivre 


TTSfJlTTTOg. 


<r- 


u 


SKTOS. 


r 


ITTTO. 


cSSofiog. 


# 


UKTCJ 


ftySoog. 


0' 


tvvia 


Ivvaroq. 


I 


6c k a 


SiKarog. 


ta 


evScKa 


evSeKiXTog. 


16' 


SoJScKa 


SdiScKarog. 


ly 


TpiiTKaiSeKa 


Tpi(JKai6eKa.Tog. 


ib' 


reaaapcaKaiScKa 


TcaaapaKatScKarog 


iz 


TTCvTCnaidsKa 


TTEVT£Kai6cKaTOg, 


«r' 


ioailScKa 


£KKai6iKarog. 


* 


iTrraxaiSeKa 


l7TTaKat6e.KaTog. 


in' 


dxruKaiScKa 


dKTOJKaiSeKaTog. 


id- 


ivvca<ai6cKa 


iuveaKai6eKaTog. 


le' 


cXkogi 


€lKOJT6g. 


K(l 


eixocri eJg 


elKoaTog npoJTog. 


X 


rpiaKOvra 


TpiaKOVTQS. 



£58. 



NOTATION OF NUMBERS. 



61 



4U 


/*, 


Tsaaap.iKovra 


Tsacrapaxoo-i 6g. 


50 


V 


-rrevrfiKOvra 


7!£VTT]!(rj<TTds. 


GO 


t 


e^Kovra 


k^rjKOGrog. 


70 


°' 


iSSofirfKOvra 


i66ojJ.rj><OGT6g, 


SO 


/ 


uydbfJKOvra 


dydor)Koar6;. 


90 


B, 


or Z^ , hvvzvfiKQVTO. 


evvzi>r]K0GT6<;. 


100 


p 


Lkcltov 


IxaToo-rog. 


200 


«\ 


fiiaxoo-ioi 


SiaKoatoarog. 


300 




rpia<6(TLGL- 


rpiaKoa-iooTog. 


400 


v' 


TsrrcrapaK6(Tioi 


revaaoaxocnocrTog. 


500 


9 1 


TTSvraKoaioi 


TiEVTOLKOaiOaTOg. 


GOO 


X 


'i^nKOGioi 


e^axocioarog. 


700 


% 


CTTTCUCOaiOl 


BTTTaKOrndCTTOg. 


600 


O) 


OKraxGcrioi 


6KTO.KO(7V)(jr6g. 


900 


3 


Eitvectxfarioi 


Lvvsaxoaioo-Tog. 


1,000 


a 


^iXioi 


yi\ioo-Tog. 


2,000 


h 


6t<ryiXioi 


6ia^i\LO<xr6g. 


( 3,000 


y,.rpicr-^iXioi 


Tpia^LXioaro;. 


i? 4,000 


6, T£rparCirrvi\iot 


TsrpjiKtcrviXiOGTog 


, 5,000 


e, TrcvraKKJ^iXioL 


TTSlTaKLCT^tXlOaTOg 


6,000 


SV i^aKi<r^i\u)L 


e^aKifT^iXioa-rog. 


1 7#00 


£, i~Ta.Kia^i\i.oi 


STTraKKj^iXtDdTog. 


\ 8000 


fa 


dySoKicr^iXioL 


dy(]oKia-^/iXiocrr6g. 


i 9,000 
I, 10,000 

:2tj,ooo 


e, 


tvvrjLKia-v'iXiot 


cuveaKicr^iXioardg, 


i 


flVplll 


ixvoioarog. 


'. 


SlffjXVflOl 


Sicyivpioar6s% 


i 50 00O 


K 


T^raKLGIXVplOL 


TrevraKifypivptofTTog. 


| 100O00 


C 


o£xa<iauvpioi 


Ssx^ijuvpioardg. 



Thus the number 1S41 is a 6 {i &. 
Obs. From the Cardinal numbers are formed 

OTHER CLASSES OF NUMERALS ; viz. * 

1st. The Numeral adverbs ; as, dig, twice, from duo ; -roig, 
thrice, from tobT; ; and from the others, by adding the termina- 
tion ~3ug, -uxig, or -t&xiq ; as, Tsuvag&xig, h^axi;, hxajovTaxig , 
four times, six times, a hundred times. 

2. JWultiple numbers in nloog, contracted nlpvg ; as, dtnldog 9 
two-fold; ToinUio;, three-fold ; tbtoutiIgo;, four-fold. 

3d. Proportionals in nldtcnog m , as, TQwM,aiog, three times as 
much. 

4th. Substantives in -a;, -hdog, which express the name of 
the several numbers; as, fiov&g. Gen. -d&>£, the number one, 
unity : dvug, the number two ; dexu;, the number ten ; elx&g, 
the number twenty ; iqiaxag, the number thirty, &c. 

5th. The Distributives, answering to the question, in how 
many parts ? are formed in -/a ; as, #//«, to//«, TtToa/a, nhv*> 
jw/a ; in two parts, in three parts; &c, and connected with these 
are such adverbs ; as, Toi/ii, ireblu, Tot/ou, in three places, &c, 

6 



62 



OF THE PRONOUN. 



§ 60. OF THE PRONOUIM. 



§ 60 



A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 
Pronouns may be divided into Personal, Possess- 
ive, Definite, Reflexive, Reciprocal, Demonstra- 
tive, Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite. Of 
these the Personal only are substantives; the 
rest are* adjectives. 

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

The Substantive or Personal Pronouns are 
syo I, av thou, ov of himself, of herself, of itself 
They are of all genders ; and are thus declined : 







eyu), 1. 






Sing. 




Dual. 




Plural. 


N. t-yco, 








N. ftfislg, 


G. i/uov or 


'[iOV, 


N. A. v&i or v&, 


G. rifi(hv 9 


D. i/uol or 


/not, 


Q. D. v(b'Cv or vtiv. 


% D. fyu>, 


A. ifd or 


[i£. 


9> 

av, thou. 




A. ^«ia?. 


Sing. 




Dual 




Plural. 


. V. <rf, 








N. V. ^^r^ 


G. crov, 




N. A. V. o-cpui or 


trgptu, 


G. fylCOl', 


D. vol, 




G. D. agpwiV or 


crcp(5j>. 


D. fy/Z>, 


A. ere. 








A. fy*a£. 






ov, of himself 




Singular. 




Dual. 




Plural. 


N. — 








N. ocpBTg, 


G. o5, 




N. A. o~cpe, 




G. OCplbv, 


D. ol, 




G. D. acplv. 




D. acplcn, 


A. S. 




* 
• 




A. agee^. 



O65. 1. The monosyllabic forms <t/o£), //o/, /^, are always en- 
clitic, § 212. and are never governed by a preposition. 

Obs. 2. In the dual, the forms v«j, v(op, of the first person, 
and <7<jp£, acpuv, of the second, are Attic. Other dialects make 
vcj and 0-906 by Apocope for vtii and aepwi. 

Obs. 3. The third personal pronoun, likeswi in Latin, wants 
the nominative Singular, and is commonly used by the Attic 



§ 61, 62. THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN. 63 

prose writers in a reflexive sense; i. e. it refers to the subject 
of the proposition in which it stands ; or of the foregoing, if 
the second be sufficiently connected with it. Thus used, it is 
translated of himself, of herself &c. In Homer and Herodo- 
tus, and the Attic poets, it is more frequently used as the pro- 
noun of the third person, for the nominative of which they use 
the relative og ; as, og ecprj, he said. This pronoun, however, 
is but little in use, the Definite avibg, § 62. and the Reflexive 
eavTov, § 63., being used instead of it. The nominative (not 
now in use) appears to have been anciently 2, from which was 
derived the Latin is. A neuter form of the nominative and 
Accusative plural, aqpe'a, occurs in Herodotus. 



§ 61. II. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

The Possessive Pronouns are derived from 
the substantive. 

1. In Signification they correspond to the Genitive of their" 
primitives, for which they may be considered as a substitute, 
thus, o adelybg £[iov, the brother of me, and 6 e/ubg o\dsl(pbg 9 my 
brother, are synonymous expressions. * 

2. In form they are regular adjectives of the first and se- 
cond declension, and are declined like xalbg, § 45. They are 
derived as .follows, 



ifis comes ifiog, 


-% 


.ov 9 my. 


ui, abg, 


H 


abv, thy. 


O O 

e, og, 


% 


6V, his. 


V&X, VCOLTEQ-Og, 


-a, 


.ov, our, i. e. of us two. 


crcpcb'i, o(pojiiTSQ-og , 


-«> 


.or, your, i. e. of you two* 


f^uelg, ^uheg-og, 


-a, 


.or, our. 


tiiieTg, -6[i8TeQ-og, 


-a, 


-ov, your. 


acpslg, aqjETsg-og, 


-S 


.ov, their. 


Doric ocp-bg, 


A* M 


-6z\ 



Obs. To this class also belong ^uedanbg, one of our cottn- 
try ; -upedanog, one of your country. But nodanbg ; of what 
country ? more properly belongs to the interrogative ; and <&- 
lodunbg, one of another country, to the indefinite pronouns. 



§ 62. III. THE DEFINITE PRONOUN. 
The Definite Pronoun avtbg is used to give 



64 



UEFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 



§ 63. 



a closer or more definite signification of a person 
or tiling. 

This pronoun has three different significations, 

1. In the nominative it adds the force of the English self 
to the word to which it belongs ; as, ey& atfro?, i" myself; ay av- 
toc, thou thyself; avwg, he himself Also in the oblique cases 
when it* begins a clause ; as, atiibv kibaaxa, 1 have seen the 
person himself 

2. In the oblique cases after another word in the same 
clause, it is used for the third personal pronoun, and signifies 
him, her, it, them ; as, o\>x kdoaxag avibv, thou hast not seen 
him . 

3. With the article before it, it signifies the same ; as, 6 atf- 
jog avOgojTiog, the same man. 

Obs. In the last sense when the article ends with a vowel, 
it often combines with the pronoun, forming one word ; thus, 
tccvtov for tov aviov ; ravirj for r*j avir^ ; ravidc for t& adia, &c. 
}Vhen thus combined the neuter ends in ov as well as o. The 
combined Tavif ( and Tatfrd must be carefully distinguished from 
TctvTri and ravru, parts of ofnog, § 65. The former has the 
Spiritus lenis (') over the v, the latter has not. 

4. atizbg is thus declined. 
Singular. Dual. 

N. afo-bg, -i), -6, N. A. 

G. (avt-ov, -Tjs, -ou, atfr-(b, -&, -d), 
G. D. 

atii-oli>. -«i>, -ol>. 



D. 



aVT'd). -Ti 



A. 



3* 

atii-ov. -iiv, 



-o. 



Plural. 
N. ax)z-ol, -«}, -&, 



G. atir-coy, -a)*>, -coi/, 
D. avi-olg, -aTg,-olg 9 
A. avi-oi)g,-dcg, -&. 



In the same manner are declined 

#Uo£ 3 aXXt], ccHo, another. 

&$i \ o\ w ho, which, 

exeivog, £xeIvtj, exslvo , that. 



§ 63 IV. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 

Reflexive Pronouns are such as relate to 
the subject of the proposition in which they 
stand. 

1. The Reflexive pronouns are formed from the accusative 
singular of the personal pronouns with the oblique cases of 



§ 64, 65. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 65 

uiwg. They are ifiavwv, of myself; ueavrov, of thygelf ; 
eaviov, of himself and are thus declined. 





Singular. 






Plural 


l. 




G. 


£(XVT-OV 9 -T}£, 


-o£f, 


G. 


€avT-(bv 9 


-co^, 


-coy, 


D. 


£ttl>T-(5, -7j>, 


-<?, 


D. 


eavt-olg, 


-atg, 


-or?, 


A. 


savT-bv, -ty, 


-6. 


A. 


kavT-ovg 9 


-A* 


-6. 



2. In the same manner are declined s/uavTov and oeavrov, 
but, in the Singular number only. In the Dual and Plural 
the parts of the compound are used separately, as, r)[i(bv atficoy, 
of ourselves. 

3. Homer never uses the compound form even in the sin- 
gular ; but, ifih avzbv ; as atiibv, &C. 

4. The contracted forms cravwv and atfrov, &c, are often 
used for oeavjov and eavTov. 

5. Sometimes in the Singular, and often in the plural, kav- 
tov is used by the Attics in the first and second, as well as in 
the third person. They are all used as the, 



§ 64. V. RECIPROCAL PRONOUN. 

The Reciprocal Pronoun indicates a mutual 
relation between different persons, expressed in 
English by the phrase one another. 

This pronoun is formed from allbg, wants the singular, and 
is thus declined : 
Dual. 

D. dUrji-otv, - 







Plural. 






(UV, -ovv, 
■a, -oj. 


G. 
D. 
A. 


&XXr[X.oig, 
dXlr\k-ovg) 


-cov, 
-MS, 
-ag, 


-cov, 

-OIQ 

-a. 


seldom used. 








"** 



§ 65. VI. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

The Demonstrative Pronouns are such as 
point out with precision a person or thing alrea- 
dy known. They are, 

* ' c; v ? * ' t this, the latter, the one. 

cue, ride, rode, ) 

ZxeXvog, exelvrj, ixelvo, that, the former, the other 

6* 



66 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 



§ 66. 






1. CT OJf, rjde, rode, this, is simply the article 6, ^, to, render- 
ed emphatic by the enclitic de annexed through all its cases, 
§ 42. O65. 3. 'ExeTvog is declined like atiidg, § 62. 4. ohog, 
like the article, takes the initial x in the oblique cases, and is 
thus declined : 









Singular. 




N. 


V. 


o£ro£, 


auny, 


TOVTO, 




G. 


TOUTOU, 


Tavrrjg, 


TOVTOV, 




D. 


TOUT©, 


Tai)vr\, 


TOVTG), 




A. 


TOllTO^, 


TCtUTIjV, 

Dual. 


TOVTO. 


.A. 


V. 


TOVTW, 


TttUTtX, 


TO^TO), 


G. 


D. 


TOtiTOlV, 


Plural. 


TOfooiV. 


N. 


V. 


OVWl, 


auTat, 


TaVTOt, 


' 


G. 


TOVTCOV, 


TOtJTWJ>, 


TOVTOJV, 




D. 


Toi)TOig^ 


ravTaig, 


TOVTOig, 




A. 


TOvrovg, 


Tatirag, 


T(XVT(X. 




Obs. The correlatives Tooovwg, roiovrog, and irjlixovTog, have 
either o* or in the Nom. and Ace. singular neuter ; thus, 
N. Tooovwg, Tocravri], rocrovzov or Toaovro, 

G. TOdOVTOV, &c. 

2. Among the Attics the demonstratives were rendered em- 
phatic by adding * to the termination ; as, ofiwcrl, toviovI, tou- 
Tatf, &c. But when the final vowel is a, or o, or e, it is drop- 
ped, and 1 put in its place ; thus, ode, tovto, zavxa^ with the 
emphatic 1 are written odl, tovtI, ravil. When ye or de follow 
the demonstrative, the 1 is placed after them, e. g. iovt6 ye 
with v becomes TovioyL A similar emphasis is expressed in 
Latin by annexing the syllables -met, -te, -pte, -ce; as, ego- 
meU tute, meapte, hicce, &c. The v added by the Attic and 
Ionian writers to the Dative Plural, however, is not emphatic 
but merely euphonic. 

3. The emphatic t> is annexed also to Xhe compounds of 
outos, and a few of the correlatives ; such as joaoviog, xoiovwg, 
rrjUxovcog, jdoog, &c, making Toaouioa/, &c. 



§ 66. VII. RELATIVE PRONOUN. 
The Relative Pronoun is one that relates to 



^67 



INTERROGATIVE TRONOUN. 



67 



a noun or pronoun going before it, called the^an- 
tecedent. 

1. The relative o», i}, o, who, which, that, is declined like 
«i3roc, (§ 62. 4.) It is rendered emphatic by adding the en- 
clitic syllable nsq ; as, Goneo, 7]rrf£, ottsq. 

2. The Ionic and Doric writers, and the Attic tragedians, 
instead of og, use the article 6, i], ro, as a relative. 

3. Instead of 6';, the compound pronoun oong is used as a 
relative alter nag, or any word in the singular expressing ail 
indefinite number ; and ocroi, after the game words in the plur- 
al ; as, itag ocmg, every one who ; iz&vreg h'uoiy all who. 



§67. VIII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 

The Interrogative Pronoun is used in asking 

a question. 

1. The interrogative xlg,Tl\ whol which? what ? has the 
acute accent on the first syllable, and is thus declined : 

Singular. Dual. ' Plural. 



N. rig, rig, ri, 
G. ili>og,Tlvo$,Tlvog. 

D. ilvi>, Jll'l^ Tfr'l, 
A. TlVU ) TU'()C y TL. 



N. A. 

rivs, ill's* rh>£, 

G. D. 

xlvoiv } ilvoiv, xivoiv. 



N. Ttvsg, zlveg, rlva^ 
G. t[vojv,tIpojv 9 tIv(x)v, 
D. ilai, rloi, zlcrt, 
A. livag, xlvag, zlva. 



In the same manner decline ong, ovng and ^ng. 

2. The interrogative Tig has its responsive oang, which is 
thus used, ilg irco'ivae ; who did it I ovz oldu oang ^Ttolrjas, 1 
know not who did iL The responsive ocrtig is declined as 
follows : 

Singular. 





N. 


oang, 


a 

ring. 


0,TC, 




G. 


ovju'og. 


jjunvog, 


oxiTbVog, 




D. 


G)TIVI, 


TITIVL. 
6 

r\vjivct, 


&TIVI,, 




A. 


QVTLVa, 


o,u. 








Dual. 




X 


A. 


oners, 


uiive, 


(sillVS, 


G. 


D. 


OiPTIfVOlV, 


oJvilVOlV, 


olvilVOlV 



Hf 



68 . INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. § 68 

Plural. 



N. 


o2rtrsg. 


a°lTlVFg, 


&TIV(X, 


G. 


101' ;i."l>)V, 


hvxwwV) 


m'Tivcov 


D. 


oJanoiy 


(tlorun, 


olcrrioi, 


A. 


ovoTiraz, 


aunvag, 


vcTiva. 



3. Instead of ocmc, Homer uses vug, declined like ilg as 
above. 

4. There appears to have been among the ancient Greeks 
another interrogative pronoun, nog, nr\, no, and its responsive 
onbg, on^i, onb, which have become obsolete, except in two cas- 
es, now used adverbially ; viz. nox>, where ; ny, in ichat way ? 
and hence the responsives bnov and ony. From these are 
formed the interrogative noiegog, -«, -oj% which of the two ? 
and its responsive bnoieoog, -«, .or, which of the two; with 
several other adverbs and adjectives still in use; each inter- 
rogative having always its own responsive ; as, 

INTERROGAT1VES. RESPONSIVES. 

Adj. nolog, of w hat kind ? onoTog, of what hind. 

nbaog, of what number ? onocrog, of what number, 
nnllxog, of what age ? bnijllxog, of what age. 

Tzoregog, which of the two ? onoiegog, which of ihe two. 
Adv. nag, how ? on^g, how. &c. thus, 

IlrfkUog £arl;of what age is he ? ovx olda bmjkixog, J know 
not of what age. In the same manner the responsives are 
used without an interrogation preceding ; as, enel&dsTO bnolog 
ty 9 " he forgets of what kind he was.' y To these also may be 
added nodanbg, of what country ? 



§ 68. IX. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

The Indefinite Pronouns are such as denote 
persons or things indefinitely. They are: 

?l?> *lg 9 il, some one. 

dtTi'u, deZvciy detva, some one, such em one. 
alio;, u)lr], alio, another. 

tteQog, LTt-ou, tTFqov, other, a different one, another. 
To wnich may be added the following negatives; viz. 
ovitg, nun;, ovrl y 

ovdelg, ofideida. ovder. 

i I V no ove 

{ir { Tig, M n S> t'V 1 ) 

[irfielg, (iqdefila, fiydh', 



§ § 69. CORRELATIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 69 

1. The indefinite rig has the grave accent on the last sylla- 
ble, to distinguish it from Tig interrogative, which has the acute 
accent on the first, the former is enclitic, §212, the latter is not. 

2. The indefinite dslva, some one, of all genders, and al- 
ways with the article prefixed, is declined like a noun of the 
third declension ; thus, 





Sing. 




Dual. 


Plural. 


N. 


dslva, or dslg, 






N. delvsg, 


G. 


detvarog, or dslvog, 


N. 


A. delve, 


G. delvcov, 


D. 


delvau. or delvi, 


G. 


D. delvoiv. 


D. delo~t, 


A. 


delva. 






A. delvag* 



Aelva is sometimes indeclinable ; as, G. tov delva, D. to delva, 
Allog is declined like atixog, § 62. 4 ; eiegog like cpaveqbg, 
§ 45. 2. 

Obs. 1. All words used interrogatively are also used indefi- 
nitely, but generally with the accent changed ; thus, „ 

INTERROGATIVES. INDEFINITES. 

noaog ; how great ? how many ? Ttovbg, of a certain size or nwm- 

ber. 
noiog ; of what hind ? noibg, of a certain kind, such. 

nrjUaog ; how old ? how large ? 7t?]Xtxog, of a certain size or age. 



§69. CORRELATIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

1. The Greek language has likewise correlative pronouns, 
each pair of which has a mutual relation. The latter of the 
two is expressed in English by as. 

ibuog, oaog, (Lat. tantus, quantus,)'so great, as. 

roTog, oiog, (Lat. talis, qualis,) such, as. 

Ttjllxog, ffilxog, of the same age, as; of the same size, as. 

2. When the correlation is more expressly designated, ex- 
pressing just as great as, exactly as great as, the former 
pronoun {rouog^olog, Trjllnog,) has de, or olzog attached to it, 
and the latter has ott' (from ony,) prefixed ; as, 

joabade. ) c . roioode, ) . m TTjlcxbade. ) < ., 

, > urioaog. . > OTtoiog. \ ~ . / QTtrMxoQ 
toaovzog, \ TOtovzog, ) jrjUxovTog, ) ' 



70 



DIALECTS OF THE PRONOUNS. 



§ 70. 



§ 70. DIALECTS OF THE PRONOUNS. 







"Eym, I. 








Ionic. 


Doric. 


JEolic. 


Poetic. 


Sing. 


N 


cya>i>, lycovrj. 
cydjya.) iycovya. 


syo), lywv. 
B. io), icoya. 


'yw. 




G. tfxeTo Ipso, 


Sfxev. 


B. £[xovg. 


epeBsv. 




bueOev. 










D. 


EjXiV'. 


2(101, B. EpV. 




Dual. 


N. A. 


dps, cififie. 






Plur. 


N. tidies. 


di*£s, an jw£?. 




afxfxc, apfxES* 




G. t]pi(jiv. 


CLfxtov, oLjxeoyv. 


CtjWjUtOl/, djJt[X£(A)V. 


riflELCOV. 




D. 


dplv, apiv. 


apfiEaiv. 


fiplv. 




A. fijAtas. 


dfidg, dfis, a[X[i£, 

2v y Thou. 


appag^ dpfxEag. 


r,jjL£iag. 


Sing. 


N. V. 


TV,. rvvr], Tvya. 


tovvyj. 






G. ffsToj aeo, oeQev. 


tsv, rsvg, rsovg. 


asVf o-eOev. 


(TEiodsv. 




D. 


roi, rivj ri'iv. 


rivrj. 






A. 


T£j TV. 


rlv 9 r»i'i/. 




Dual. N 


.A.V. 


VfJlE, VfXfJLE. 






Plur. 


N. V. vpses. 


fys?, vnpes. 




v[i[jiSy vpixes. 




G. vfxscxyv. 


V[X(OV. 


vnnoiVj vnjxtoiv. 


VpElOiV. 




D. 


tjxlv, VfxTv. 


vppt, vppiv, ■ 

VfX[X£(TlV. 






A. Vfxiag. 


vpag, V[x£, Vfx/xE. 

a 0g, He. 


vfifxag, vfxjxeag, 


vestas. 


Sing. 


G. £10, 010, £010, 

?o, eOev. 

D. lor. 


cv. 


eOev, y£$£V. 


eIoQev. 
lot. 




A. flip 


viv 


filvj viv. 


h, a<l>l. 


Dual. 


N. A . a<pse. 


o-^wc, ff^o). 






Plur. 


N. oipug. 
G. trfycuiv. 


<r(f>£S. 




ctysTsg. 
c-^eiojv. 




D. artylVj C(pU 




aatyi. 


<piv. 




A. ccjteag. 


G<pi) ips. 


<r<p£S, acrfe. 
[xlv i viv. 


cfeTag. 

C(f>£. 



Obs. 1. fjtlv and viv, are used for the accusative in all gen- 
ders dnd numbers ; so also is aye, among the poets, i. e. for 
uvx-bv, -rj^,-6, and avz.oug, -&c,-&. 

Obs. 2. The adjective pronouns are inflected in the differ- 
ent dialects according to the models of the first and second 
declensions. Other peculiarities may be learned by practice ; 
as, for itfiiTSQog, -a, .or, our; ~D. d/nbg, -a, -bv ; for fyuhsgog, 
D. fiuvg ; for acpiieoog, D. aybg ; for ovxivog, A. orou, D. otsv, 
I. ozeo. P. oneoj ; for (Ltlvi,, A. oro), I. ox^o) ; for ctrcva, A 
arr«, D. uvaa ; for r/j/og and Tivbg, A. Toi), I. t^o, D. tsv ; for 
x/yt and Tivl, A. tw, I. t^g) ; for tIvwv, I. r^o>y ; for r/cr^ I. zioioi ; 









§ 71. OF THE VERU. 71 

for iivd, A. gc/t«, D. aaoa ; for aoj, arj, aoV, jtA?/, D. recSg, rsd f 
reov; for ifc, 77, oV, I. eog, &r|, so*', kis, &c. : this form occurs 
only in the singular number. 



§ 71. OF THE VERB. 

A Verb is a word that expresses an action or 
state. 

Obs. 1. The use of the verb in simple propositions is to 
affirm. That of which it affirms is called its subject, and 
if a noun or pronoun, is in the nominative : But when the 
verb is in the infinitive its subject is in the accusative. 

1. Verbs are of two kinds, Transitive and In- 
transitive* 

2. A Transitive verb expresses an act done 
by one person or thing to another. In Greek it 
has three forms, Active, Middle, and Passive. § 74. 

3. An Intransitive verb expresses being, or a 
s-ate of being, or action confined to the actor. It is 
commonly without the passive form. § 74. Obs. 2. 

Obs. 2. The verbs that express being simply, in Greek 
are three, elut, ylyouou, and vrraoyv), signifying in general to 
be. The state of being expressed by intransitive verbs may 
be a state of rest ; as, fuJto, I sleep; or of motion ; as, 17 vavc, 
nisei, the skip sails ; or of action ; as, Tge%w, I ry,n. 

Obs. 3. Transitive and Intransitive verbs may always be 
distinguished, thus: a transitive verb always requires an 

* These two classes comprehend all the verbs in any language. Ac- 
cording to this division, Transitive verbs include those only which denote 
transitive action ; i. e. action done by one person or thing to another, or 
which passes ouer,as the word signifies, from the actor to an object acted 
upon; as " Caesar conquered Gaul," or "Gaul was conquered by Caesar.' 
Intransitive verbs on the other hand include all those which have nothing 
transitive in their meaning — nothing -passing over from one person or thing 
to another, and consequently no relation to anything beyond their subject 
which they represent in a certain state or condition, and nothing more. 

Instead of the terms active and neuter formerly used to denote these two 
classes of verbs, the terms Transitive and Intransitive are here preferred as 
being more expressive and appropriate, and in order to relieve the term 
" active " from the ambiguity created by using it, both as the designation of 
a class of verbs and also as the name of a particular form of the verb called 
the active voice. To the latter of these only it is now applied in this work. 
Still, how r ever, should any prefer the terms Active and Neute^, to designate 
these classes of the verb, they can easily be employed. Eng. Gr. App. III. 5. 



72 DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. § 72. 

object lo complete the sense; as, I love thee; the intransi- 
tive verb does not, but the sense is complete without such, 
an object ; i s, I sit ; I run. 

Obs. 4. Many verbs considered intransitive in Greek are 
translated by verbs considered transitive in English ; as, 
dvdarw, I please ; tinaxdvw, I obey; urrtlOu), I disobey; l^noSt'Cw^ 
[kinder; b'ox^m,! trouble; &c. In strict language, how- 
ever, these and similar verbs denote rather a slate than an 
act, and may be rendered by the verb to be and an adjective 
word; as, I am pleasing, obedient, disobedient, &c. 

Obs. 5. Many verbs are used sometimes in a transitive, 
and sometimes in an intransitive sense ; as, (pdh'ot, Tr. 1 
destroy; Intr. I shin, or decay; yu'Co>, Tr. I put to flight, 
Intr. I flee. This change from a transitive to an intransi- 
tive sense, however, is generally indicated by a change 
from the active to the middle form of the verb ; as, (falvm, 
Active Tr. I shew; $u(poput 9 Mid. I shew myself, i. e. Intr. 1 
appear. — See § 74. Note. 

Obs. 6. Verbs usually intransitive become transitive when 
a word of similar signification with the verb itself is intro- 
duced as its object ; as, TQs'xoiuev ibr &y&va 9 let us run the race. 

Obs. 7. When a writer wishes to direct the attention not 
so much to a particular act, as to the employment, or state 
of a person or thing, the object of the act not being impor- 
tant, is omitted, and the verb, though transitive, assumes 
the character of an intransitive: Thus when we say "the 
boy reads," nothing more is indicated than the present state 
or employment of the subject "boy," and the verb has ob- 
viously an intransitive sense. Still an object is implied. 
But when we say " the boy reads Homer," the attention 
is directed to the object "Homer" as well as to the act, 
and the verb has its proper transitive sense. 



r 



§ 72. DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. 

Though the division of Verbs into Transitive and I?itran* 
sitive, comprehends all the verbs in any language, yet from 
something peculiar in their form or signification, they are 
characterized by different names expressive of this peculi- 
arity. The most common of these are the following: viz, 
Regular, Irrc'gular, Deponent, Defective, Redundant, Im 
personal, Desiderative, Frequentative and Inceptive. 



5 73 INFLECTION OF REGULAR VERBS. 73 

1. Regular Verbs are those in which all the 
parts are formed from the Root or stem, accord- 
ing to certain rules, § § 93 — 97, and 106 — lo7. 

2. Irregular or Anomalous Verbs differ in 
some of their parts from the regular forms. § 112, 
116,117. 

3. Deponent Verbs under a middle and Das- 
sive form, have either an active or middle sig- 
nification. § 113. 

4. Defective Verbs want some of their parts. 

5. Redundant Verbs have more than one form 
of the same part. 

6. Impersonal (or more properly Unipersonal) 
Verbs are used only in the third person singu- 
lar. § 114. 

7. Desiberatives denote desire, or intention 
of doing. § 115. 1. 

8. FREauENTATivEs express repeated action. 
§ 115. 2. 

9. Inceptives mark the beginning or continued 
increase of an action. § 115. 3. 



§ 73. INFLECTION OK REGULAR YERBS. 

To the inflection of verbs belong Voices, Moods, 
Tenses, Numbers and Persons. 

The Voices in Greek are three, Active, Mid- 
dle and Passive. 

The Moods are five; the Indicative, Subjunc- 
tive, Optative, Imperative, and Infinitive. 

The Tenses, or, distinctions of time in Greek 
are seven, the Present, the Imperfect, the Future, 
the Aorist, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and, in the 

7 



74 of voice. § 74 

passive voice, the Paulo-post-fulure or Future 
Perfect. 

The Numbers are three; Singular, Dual and 
Plural. 

The Persons are three ; First, Second and 
Third, 

The Conjugations or forms of inflection, are 
two, viz. the First of verbs in -co and the Second 
of verbs in -fii. 

Obs. Some verbs appear in both forms ; as, deatvvoj and 
deixpvtu, I shoio. Some verbs are partly of the first conjuga- 
tion and partly of the second ; thus, Galvw, I go, of the first : 
2d Aorist, %6qv 9 I went, from Grifit of the second ; yLyvauxu), I 
know ; 2d Aor. syvojp, I knew, from yvw.ut of the second. Such 
verbs as these, however, though regular in each form, are gen- 
erally reckoned among the irregular verbs. 



§ 74. OF VOICE.* 

Voice is a particular form of the verb which 
shows the relation of the subject or thing spoken 
of to the action expressed by the verb. 

In Greek the transitive or active verb has 
three voices, Active, Middle and Passive. 

Obs. 1. In all voices the Act expressed by the Transitive 
verb is the same, and in all. except sometimes the middle, is 
equally transitive ; but in each, the act is differently related to 
the subject of the verb, as follows : 

1. The Active Voice represents the subject 
of the verb as acting on some object ; as, rvTtro 
as, /strike you. 

2. The Middle Voice represents the subject 
of the verb as acting on itself, or in some way 
for itself ; as, rimrofxac, I strike myself ; zSTw^a- 
(j.yiv rov 7to5d ? / hurt my foot ; ovyjadfiyiv Initov, I 
bought me a horse. 



§ 74 of voice. 75 

3. The Passive Voice represents the subject 
of the verb as acted upon ; as, rvTtro^atj I am 
struck; 6 Ttovg eo/^o.^d-yj^ the foot — his foot — my foot 
ivas hurt. 

Obs. 2. Intransitive verbs from their nature do not admit 
a distinction of voice. They are generally in the form of the 
Active Voice, frequently in that of the Middle or Passive ; 
but whatever he their form, their signification is always the 
same ; as, d^axat or 6vj\okoiiu.i, I die, 

Obs. 3, The Middle Voice, in Greek, is so called, because 
it has a middle signification between the Active and Passive 
Voices, implying neither action nor passion simply, but a 
union, in some degree, of both. Middle verbs may be divi- 
ded into Five Classes, as follows : 

1st. In Middle Verbs of the First Class, the action of the 
verb is reflected immediately back upon the agent ; and hence 
verbs of this class are exactly equivalent to the Active Voice 
joined with the Accusative of the reflexive Pronoun ; as, lovw, 
I wask another ; lovoucn, I ivash myself; the same as kouw 

2d. In Middle Verbs of the Second Class, the agent is the 
remote object of the action of the verb, with respect to whom 
it takes place ; so that Middle Verbs of this class are equiva- 
lent to the Active Voice with the Dative of the reflexive Pro- 
noun (£Wftur<3, crsavTU}, huviG ) ; as, uionv, to take up any tiling 
for another, in order to transfer it to another; aloelcdai, to 
take vp in order to keep it for one's self, to transfer it to one's 
self. Hence verbs of this class carry with them the idea of a 
thing's being done for one's self 

3d. Middle Verbs of the Third Class express an action 
which took place at the command of the agent, or with regard 
to it; which is expressed in English by to cause. In other 
words, this class may be said to signify, to cause any thing to 
be done; as, yo'iqpo), I write, yqucpo.uai, I cause to he written ; 1 
cause the name, as of an accused, person, to be taken down in 
writing by the magistrate before whom the process is carried, 
: or simply, / accuse. 

4th. The Fourth Class of Middle Verbs includes those which 
denote a reciprocal or mutual action ; as, anivdeodai, to make 
libations along with another, to make mutual libations, i. e. to 
make a league ; duxlveudai, to dissolve along with another, to 



** 



76 OF MOODS. § ?5. 

dissolve by mutual agreement. To this class belong verbs 
signifying "to contract," « to quarrel," "to contend," &c. 

5th. The Fifth Class comprehends Middle Verbs of the 
First Class, when followed by an Accusative, or some other 
Case ; in other words, it embraces all those Middle Verbs 
which denote an action reflected back on the agent himself, 
and which are at the same time followed by an Accusative, or 
other case, which that action farther regards ; as, avapv&aOca 
tl, to recall any thing to one's own recollection. 

Not* From the reflected nature of this Voice, many verbs, which are ac* 
live or transitive in the active voice, may be rendered by a neuter or intran- 
sitive verb h the middle voice ; as, aH\\a>, I send, (viz. another;) eri^ai, 
"isend myself, i. e. I go ; dpyi^, I provoke another; dpyifriai, I provoke my- 
self* e. I am awry; ™ido, I persuade another ; 7r«0o/iat, / persuade .myselj, 
i e.' Imeld or obey, In many instances, however, the relation to se f is not 
so clearly distinguishable. This is particularly the case with the later 
writers as, Plutarch, Herodiaa, &c. In the writings of the Ancients, He- 
rodotus, Xenophon, and others, the distinction of the active and middle 
voices is much more strictly observed. 

O'js. 4. The Future Middle has often an active, and sometimes, 
especially among the poets, a passive sense. 

Obs. 5. The Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperh -of, 
a. i Future-Perfect Middle are the same as in the. Passive, or, 
more strictly they are the passive forms in a middle sense. When 
ibe Middle Aoriste are unusual or wanting, their place is supplied 
by Lhe Passive AorUta in a middle sense. Sometimes, when the 
Middle Aorist is u*ed in the ordinary sense, the Passive also is 
used as a Middle, hut in a peculiar sense ; as, Mid. oidlaa&ah 
to array oat's self. Pass, (ncdfjvm, to travel. 

Obs 6 The 2 Perfect and 2 Pluperfect Active (called by'the an- 
cient grammarians the Perf. and Plunerf. Middle) are of rare 
occurrence, and, when used, are completely of an active signifi- 
cation. In a few instances, it is true, they incline to an intransi- 
tive and reflexive sense; as, ninoi&a, I have persuaded myself, 
i e / am confident. But stilt it is certain that in all cases in 
which a verb can have a middle sense, that sense is expressed, 
in these tenses, only by the Perfect and Pluperfect Passive in their 
middle sense. 



§ 75. OF MOODS. 

Mood is the mode or manner of expressing the 
signification of the Verb. 



§ 75. OF MOODS. 7? 

The moods in Greek are five, namely; «the 

Indicative, Subjunctive, Optative, Imperative, and 
Infinitive. 

1. The Indicative Mood is always used to 
express a thing as actual and certain; as ? <^A), 
I love. 

Obs. 1. Hence the Indicative is often used in Greek where 
the subjunctive would be used in Latin ; as, yiyvtivxeig rig eon ; 
do yon know who he is ? Latin, Jin scis qui sit ? 

2. The Subjunctive and Optative Moods 
never represent a thing as actual and certain, 
but as contingent and dependent : that is, they 
do nof represent a thing as what does, or did, or 
certainly will exist, but as what may, or can, or 
might exist. 

The Subjunctive represents this contingency 
and dependence as present; — the Optative, as 
past. 

Obs. 2. The Subjunctive and Optative moods involve a 

complex idea including — 1st and chiefly, the general idea of 

liberty or power, expressed by the English words, may, can, 

pight, &c, from which the secondary ideas of contingency 

and futurity are derived ; and 2d, the modification of this idea 

by the meaning of the verb common to all the moods ; thus, 

He may, or can, expressed ia Greek by the subjunctive form, 

represents the person he in possession of the general attribute 

• of liberty or power. Combine with this the meaning of the 

- verb, and then we have the general attribute expressed by the 

. subjunctive form, restricted to the particular action or state 

expressed by the verb ; as, he may write ; he can walk ; he 

may be loved. 

Obs. 3. The future indicative is often used in a subjunctive 
and also in an imperative sense, and hence in the futures 
there is neither subjunctive nor imperative mood. See Syntax, 
§ 171. 5. and 172. Obs. 3. 

Obs. 4. The contingency of an action conceived of as past 
is not absolute, but relative to the knowledge of the speaker , 
thus, in the expression ysyq^qy^, he may have written, the act, 
f if done, is past, but of the fact the speaker is uncertain. 

7* 



78 OF THE TENSES. § 76. 

3 The Imperative Mood commands, exhorts, 
entreats, or permits ; as, ypd<pe, write thou ; ho, let 
him go. 

Obs. 5. In the p-xst tenses the Imperative expresses urgen- 
cy of command, expedition or completion of action ; as, 
7ion\(jov, have done. In the perfect, moreover, the idea of per- 
manent and completed action is implied ; as, e^6e6h\u6M, let 
him have been cast, i. e. let him be cast speedily, and effectually, 
and continue so ; 7) Ovoa xexletodix), let the door be shut, and 
kept so. 

Rem. The future indicative, the subjunctive, and the 
infinitive, are sometimes used imperatively. See Syntax of 
these moods. 

4. The Infinitive Mood expresses the mean- 
ing of the verb in a general manner, without any 
distinction of person or number; as, to read, to 
speak, to be loved. 

Obs. 6. Besides the common use of the Infinitive, as in Latin 
it is completely a verbal noun, of the neuter gender, § 173. 

Obs. 7. Hence (he Greek Infinitive supplies the place of those 
verbal nouns called gerunds and supines in Latin, § 173, Obs. 3. 

Obs. 8. The Infinitive, with a subject, is usually translated as 
the Indicative, § 175. 

Obs. 9. The Imperfect and Pluperfect exist only in the Indicative. 



§ 76. OF THE TENSES. 

Tenses are certain forms of the Verb which 
serve to point out the distinctions of time. 

The Tenses in Greek are seven, — the Present, 
the Imperfect, the Future, the Aorist, the Perfect, 
the Pluperfect^ and, in the Passive, the Future- 
perfect or Paulo-post future. 

Rem. In some Verbs the Perfect and Pluperfect Active, the Aorists 
in all the voices, and the Future in the Passive voice, have two different 
forms, usually distinguished as first, and second, but of the same signifi- 
cation. The second Future has no existence in the Active and Middle 
voices ; that which was so called by the ancient grammarians, is only 
an Attic form of the first, § 101. 4 (1 ) 



l.c 



76. OF THE TEXSES. 79 



"H. 



I. The Presbnt tense expresses an action net 
completed, but going on at the present time ; as, 
yQacpco, I write, I am writing. 

Obs. 1. The Present Tense is used to express general truths; 
as, £wa tqs/81, animals run. In historical narration it is used 
t with great effect for a preterite tense. 

II. The Imperfect tense represents an action 
not completed, but going on at a certain past time ; 
as, h/Qacpov, I wrote (yesterday) ; / was writing 
(when he came). 

Obs. 2. From its expressing the continuance of an action, 
m \t is frequently used to express what was customary, or con- 
tinued from time to time ; as o Irtrcoxouog Tovlnnov srqiOe, xal 
IxTEvi'tE TTcccrag ftfieqag, the groom kept rubbing the horse 
■every clay. 

Obs. 3. For the same reason it is used instead of the aorist, 
to express a past action, without reference to any specified time. 
When the action is continued, and not mq,mentary, and when 
Actions of both kinds are mingled in a narration, the continued 
action is often expressed by the imperfect, and the momentary 
pj the aorist ; as, eSedgaus xal xadvl&xzei,, He ran Fv>rth (the 
lorist,) and continued barking at them, (the imperfect,) 
tov; uev ovv nEhxauxag ede^avxo oi 6dg6agov t xai eu&%ovxo* eneld' 
iyyu; \aav oi OTtltrai exqunovxo, xul ol nelxaoxal evOvg elnovxo. 
The barbarians received (aorist) the peltastoz and fought 
(imperf.) with them. But when the heavy-armed soldiers were 
near, they turned (aorist,) and the peltastoz immediately pur- 

ued them, (imperf.) 
Obs. 4. When the action represented by the imperfect as 

egun and continuing, in past time, does not succeed, or fails 
to be completed, it expresses only the beginning of an action, 
or the attempt to accomplish it ; as, KX£ag%og de xovg oto«tk£- 
Tug i&iA^sio Xcvav, Clear chus attempted to force the sol- 
diers to go. 

III. The Future tense expresses an action not 
'completed, but continuing in future time; as, 

yqaiprD, I shall or will write. In the Passive voice 
it has two forms called, the first and second. 

Obs. 5. Other varieties of future time are expressed by means 
of auxiliary verbs. See § 77, 06s. 1. 



80 OF THE TENSES. § TGI 

. IV. The Aorist represents &b action simply 
as past ; as, tyQcatja, I wrote. — This tense, in all 
the voices, has two forms,called the first and second, 

Rem. When the time to which the Imperfect and Pluperfect refer ia 
manifest from the context, the Aorist is often used instead of them. 

Obs. 6. From the indefinite nature of this tense, it is usee 
by the Greeks to express what is usually or always true ; anc 
is rendered by the English expressions, ' usually? c to be wonV 
'to use? as, iv.g t&v cpavlow ovv^delag oktyog xgorog diilvoe, M 
short time commonly dissolves ike confederacies of the wicked 
^u)xodr?]g idtda^s rovg fiuOrjiug afucrOl, Socrates was wont tc 
teach his disciples without any charge. In this signification, 
however, it differs from the imperfect, (Obs. 2.) inasmuch as 
the aorist denotes what is always customary ; the imperfect what 
was customary during a specified period oftime. 

Obs. 7. As the aorist does not, like the imperfect, express 
continuance, it is often used to express momentary action, and! 
that in the same construction in which the imperfect is used tot 
express continued action. (Obs. 3.) 

N. B. Though in the paradigm of the verb the full form of both the first,; 
and second aorist is usually given, it must be observed that when the first 
aorist is in use, the second is usually wanting, and vice versa. In a very 
few words only are both forms to be found, and even in these, the two forms 
for the most part belong to different dialects, ages, or styles. , 

V. The Perfect tense represents an action 
completed at or before the present time ; as, yk* 
YQcccpct) I have written. In some verbs the Active 
voice has. two forms, called the Perfect, and 2 Perf. 

Obs. S. This Tense implies that at or in the present time ihe 
act expressed by the verb is completed, but does not indicate at 
what point or period oftime prior to the present it was completed. 
Thus, yiyqau^a ri t v ini(noh]v, I have written the letter, does not 
say when the letter was written, but only that it is now written. 
Hence it is that this tense connects the action, either in its 
completion, or, in its continuance as a completed act, with the 
present time; thus, ysydfitjTta, in Greek means not only, I have 
been married (without saying when the event took place), 
but that the married state still continues, i. c. / am married. 
Hence the Perfect is generally used to denote a lasting or 
permanent state or an action finished in itself} and therefore often 



5 76. OF THE TENSES. 81 

occurs in Greek, where, in English, we use the present ; as, 
uuqu6e6rjx(xg, thou protectest, (i. e. thou hast protected and still 
coniiuuest to protect.) The continued force of the perfect ac- 
companies it through all the moods ; as, elnov rfv dioav xe- 
y.lHodixi, they gave directions for the door to be shut, and to be 
kept so ; 6 /usv A^or^g oviog ig top JIvQicpley edovja efi6s6lr{o0o), 
'Let this robber be cast into the Pyriphlegethon, and continue 
there. • 

Obs. 9. In several verbs the perfect tense is always used to 
denote only the finished action, whose effect is permanent, 
and therefore, in English, is translated by the present of some 
other verb, which expresses the consequence of the action con- 
tained in the Greek verb. Thus, xaleu, 1 name, perf. pass. 
KExhjuai, I have been named, and continue to be so, but com- 
monly rendered, I am named, or my name is. So also, from 
iidcoiuu, I acquire for myself, xixrijuou, I possess ; (i. e. I have 
acquired, and the acquisition continues mine ;) [ivao{.iai, I call 
o my recollection, /ui/Lcvr^uaL, I remember. 

VI. The Pluperfect represents an action 
completed at or before a certain past time ; as, 
eytynucftiv, I had written (an hour ago).— -This 
tense, like the Perfect, in the Active voice has 
two forms, called the Pluperfect, and 2 Pluperfect. 

Obs. 1 . The Pluperfect bears the same relation to the 
>erfect which the Imperfect does to the present ; and hence 
vhenever the perfect is rendered by the present (Obs 9.) the 
Pluperfect will of course be rendered as the imperfect; as, <%- 
)oiv.u, I fear, sdedolxetv, I feared. 

VII. The Future- Perfect, or Paulo-fost-Future, as it 
s sometimes called by Grammarians, is, both in form and 
ignitication, compounded of the perfect and future, and de- 
mtes, 

1. The continuance of an action, or state, in itself, or con- 
equences; as, r\ noXixtiu TsUwg xzxoour{(j£Tai, The city will con- 
inue to be completely organized^ ; lyyg&iperca, lie shall con- 
\n\Me enrolled. In thus expressing continuance, it agrees in 
jignification with the perfect, and hence, 

2. It is the natural future of those perfects which have ac- 
uired a separate meaning, of the nature of the present (Obs. 
[•); as, lO^iTiTav, he has been, and continues left, i. e. he 

femains; Paulo-post F. IslelyeTai, he shall remain; xixTqum^ 
I 



82 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE TENSES. § 77. 

I have acquired and continue to retain, i. e. I possess; Paulo- 
post future xexTi'ioofiaiy I shall possess. 

3. It is frequently used to intimate that a thing will bedoneij 
speedily; as, cpo&'Qs xal nenqd^sra^ speak and it shall be dout 
immediately . 



§ 77. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE 

TENSES. 

06.9. 1. Time is naturally divided into the Present, Past, 
and Future ; and in each of these divisions an action maybe 
represented either as incomplete and continuing, or as com- 
pleted at the time spoken of; thus, 

( Action continuing ; as, yodcpw, I write or am writ 
Present. < ing. 

{ Action completed ; as, ysyqacpa, I have written. 
p i Action continuing ; as, 'iyqayov, I was writing. 

I Action completed; as, eyeyqdcpeiv, I had written 

i Action continuing; as, yodipix), I shall write. 
Future. < Action completed ; as, ysyqdcpu; eoouu^ I shall 

f have written. 

Of these six divisions of time, it will be observed, that all; 
except the last are expressed by distinct forms or tenses of 
the verb ; and this last is also expressed by a distinct form, 
in the passive voice, called the Paulo-post future. It may 
also be noticed that in each of these three divisions of time, 
by means of an auxiliary verb and the infinitive, an action may 
be represented as on the point of beginning ; thus, 

Present, {utllu) yodcpeiv, I am about to write. 
Past. lusIIov yqdyeiv, I was about to write. 

Future. /n&)dr\aut yodcpeuv, I shall be about to write. 

Obs. 2. Besides these, the Greek has the advantage of a 
separate tense, under the division of past time, to intimate 
simply that the action is past without reference to any partic 
ular point of time at which it took place, and hence is denom- 
inated the Jlorist, i. e. indefinite. This tense is rendered rnto 
English and Latin by the imperfect and perfect tenses in an 
indefinite sense. 

Obs. 3. The tenses, divided as above into three classes, in 
respect of time, are farther, with regard to their termination 
and use? divided into two classes or series, which may be de- 



j 



§ 78. # AUXILIARY VERBS. S3 

nomiuated the Chief or Primary, and Secondary tenses ; 
thus, 

Chief, or Primary. Secondary. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Perfect. Pluperfect. 

Future. 1 Aorist. 

Future-passive. 2 Aorist. 

The chief tenses are employed in the direct address, to ex- 
press actions as present or future. The secondary are used 
in the recital of these actions as past ; and hence are some- 
times denominated the Historical Tenses. 

Qbs. 4. In the English expression of the moods and tenses, 
&c. great precision cannot be expected. Their signification 
often varies according to the conjunctions and particles with 
'which they are joined, and hence, a corresponding variety of 
translation becomes necessary. In consequence, also, of the 
number of independent forms being greater in the Greek verb 
than in the English, it is necessary to express certain tenses 
and moods, in the former, by a circumlocution in the latter; 
and sometimes, in order to give the precise idea of the Greek 
tense, a totally different construction must be adopted in the 
English sentence by which it is translated; thus, having no 
imperative in the past tense in English, the full force of the 
imperative forms, in the past tenses in Greek, must either be 
ost in the translation, or preserved at the expense, often, of 
i clumsy circumlocution. (§ 75, Obs. 5.) In like manner, 
f we were required to give a strict translation to an aorist par- 
iciple, according to the idiom of our language, we must use, 
lot a participle, but a tense of the verb; thus, tovto noi^oag 
'.nr^XOsv, is commonly rendered, having done this, he departed ; 
hen, in fact, it should be,tvhen he did this, he departed. The 
rdinary rendering of the moods and tenses is the same in 
"reek as in Latin. This, as well as peculiarities of usage, is 
Jly illustrated, §§ 75, 76. 



§ 78. AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Although the Greek language is richer than any other in 
idependent forms, nevertheless a circumlocution is frequently 
lade use of, by means of the auxiliary verbs elvai, xvgElv,-6n&g- 
sw } s/biv, &c, in connection with a participle or infinitive, 



84 AUXILIARY VERBS. . § 78. 

uartly to supply deficient, or to avoid inharmonious forms; 
partly to strengthen the signification, and partly to express, 
with more minuteness and precision, the time and manner of 
action or state expressed by the verb ; thus, 

1. The subjunctive and optative in the perfect passive, are 
generally formed with s Ivat and the perfect participle ; the inde- 
pendent forms being rarely used. The same construction is 
sometimes used in the active voice. 

2. To express a purpose of doing, or the proximity of an 
event, fnilloj, Oelw and idelo), with the infinitive, are used ; as, 

o,T£ fiellEig liyetv, whatever you are about to say. 

3. Continuance, or a permanent state, combined with the va- 
rious circumstances of commencement, simple existence, priority, 
energy, or accident, is expressed by ylvo/Lica, eifxl 9 vnty/u, xugw, 
e/oj, Tvyx&rw, with a participle; as, eyivsro avOgumog aneaial- 
fuivog, there was a man sent. 

4. The completion of an event is expressed by cl/tl, with a 
past participle. With such *a participle, elpl in trie past tense 
is equivalent to the pluperfect, but is much more emphatical ; 
as, Toig avxog)dcpiag xr\g noXewg r\v bi&tag, he WAS AFTER DRIV- 
ING the informers from the city. In like manner, eao/ucu in the 
future, with a past participle, expresses the future perfect in the 
indicative; the subjunctive and optative of which is supplied 
from the aorists and jocrfect ; as, nenoi^uhov lorai, it shall have 
been done, or it shall be done quickly. 

5. Anticipated performance is expressed by cpOavw or irgo- 
tyduvo), with a participle ; as, SwildevTai yOuoai tI dgcxaavieg 
i] nudelv, they conspire to do something to avoid suffering. 

6. Secrecy, so as to escape not only the knowledge of 
others, but even a person's own consciousness, is expressed 
by luvOuvu), with a participle ; as, lludov Tivbg ^evidoavieg 
uyyilXovg, some persons entertained angels unawares. 

7. A variety of other circumstances are expressed by join- 
ing appropriate adjectives and participles, with elpl; as, <pave- 
£og y\v Ovu)v. he sacrificed openly. 

8. Strong and earnest desire is expressed by the imperfect 
or second aorist of dcpetlw, agreeing with its subject, and com- 
monly followed by the infinitive ; the particle elre is sometimes 
joined with it and sometimes not; as, 

frq ocpelov vixav, I wish that I had not conquered. 
» AXQ oopelov pelvou, Would to God I had staid. 



§ 79, 80. PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 85 

9. Imperious duty or necessity is expressed by verbal adjec- 
tives in -rsog, (§ 80.) either agreeing with their substantives, 
or, what is more usual, having their agents in the dative, and 
governing tfeeir objects as the verbs do from which they are 
derived ; as, 6 ayadbg [idpog Tifiyjsog, the good man alone must 
be honoured. 

10. In some cases there appears to be a pleonasm in the use 
of certain auxiliaries, where there is really none; for by ana- 
lyzing the expressions, we shall find every word having its own 
distinct force; thus, ek^v elvai eTtilaOdfievog, is incorrectly 
translated forgetting icittingly. The 'full force of the words 
may be expressed in English, thus, willing to be after forget- 
ting, according to the ancient Celtic idiom. (See No. 4. also 
Construction of. the Participle.) 



§ 79. PARTICIPLES. 

The Participle is a part of the verb, and ex« 
presses its meaning considered as a quality or 
condition of an object ; as, 

rjl&s (j I s n w v , he came seeing. 

(T Tag y.droj&ev ijiijvet avTov y standing below he praised him. 

Participles are varied like Adjectives, by gender, number, and 
case, to agree with Substantives in these accidents. If the idea 
of time be separated from the Participle, it becomes an Adjective. 

Every Tense in Greek, except the Imperfect and Pluperfect, 
has its Participle, — a circumstance*which gives the language a 
decided advantage over the Latin, which has no Present Partici- 
ple Passive, nor Past Participle Active. 



§ 80. YERBAL or PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES in 

-rog and -riog. 

The Greeks have verbal adjectives, which both in significa 
1 tion and use, nearly resemble participles. They are formed 
f- by adding the syllables -xbg and -x&og to the first root of ths* 
verb; thus, 

8 



86 OF CONJUGATION, § 81 

Root. Verbal Adj. 

Uyco, I say, ley- ?6g, Xexr6g, said, 

yg&qxxi, I write, yQacp- rdg, ygarndg, written. 

q>d£ui, I love, cpiXs- ?tog, ydrjjsog, Ito be loved. 

Those derived from liquid verbs add -i6g and -riog to the 
second root; as, 

jslvo), I extend, 2d R. rav- ziog, Tariog, to be extended. 

Note. In those derived from pure verbs the vowel preceding the termina- 
tion is sometimes lengthened, sometimes not; thus, from <pi\eui, the adjec- 
tive is (piXrjTeos, but from alpeto, alp&T6g. 

Obs. 1. The verbal adjectives in -r6g have commonly a pas- 
sive signification, and either correspond to the Latin perfect 
participle passive ; as, noirjTog, f actus, made ; t %v rog, aggestus, 
VTQETiTog , jlexus ; or, they convey the idea of ability and capa- 
city, expressed by the Latin adjectives in -His ; thus, ogcndg, 
visibilis, visible ; faovaTog, audible, &c. Frequently, how- 
ever, they have an active signification ; as, xalvnidg, conceal- 
ing ; jue/umog, blaming, &c. 

Obs. 2, Those in reog correspond to the Latin future parti- 
ciple in -dus, and convey the idea of duty, necessity, or obli- 
gation ; as, (pdrjihg, amandus, who ought to be loved ; noiiog, 
bibendus, which ought to be drunk. 

Obs. 3. it£ov, in the neuter, (among the Attics more com- 
monly -riot in the plural,) corresponds to the Latin gerund; 
thus, 7ioj£ov, (Attic nox£a) luxt, bibendum est; nofefirjTta evil, 
bellandum est. 

Note, For the construction of these adjectives, see Syntax, § 147, Obs, $. 



§ 81. OF CONJUGATION. 

The Conjugation of a verb is the arranging of its different 
moods and tenses according to a certain regular order. 

There are two conjugations in Greek, theirs* of verbs in 
*o ; and the second of verbs in f*i>* 



* Note. Those who, after full examination, prefer the more common 
method of forming the tenses by deriving one tense from another, will find 
the Rules in the Appendix. They will of course pass over this part of the 
Grammar, from § 82 to § 97 inclusive, except §§ 87—90, "On the Aug- 
ment" vyhich is the same in all methods of formation, 



§ 82. OF THE ROOT. 87 

The changes which a verb undergoes by inflection to dis- 
tinguish its different voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and 
persons, may all be referred to three heads ; the Root, the 
Augment, and the Terminations. 



§ 82. I. OF THE ROOT and its CHARACTERISTIC. 

1. The Root is that part of the verb which 
remains unchanged throughout, (except as re- 
quired by the rules of Euphony, § 6,) and serves 
as the basis of all the different forms which the 
verb assumes. 

2. The final letter of the root is called the 
| Characteristic, because the verb is denomina- 
ted pure r mute, or liquid, according as that letter 
is a vowel, or a mute, or a liquid. 

3. In all primary forms of the verb the charac- 
teristic is the letter next the termination in the 
present indicative ; thus, y in Twyo ; n in tpsrttd ; 
v in %&>.; v in remo, &c. 

Exc. But if of two consonants the last be 
either r or a liquid, the first is the characteris- 
tic ; thus, n in riWrc) and /udp7nto ; x in rixtcd ; p 
in reeved] hence the following 

GENERAL RULE FOR FINDING THE ROOT. 

4. Strike off from the present indicative all that 
follows the characteristic; what remains is the 
first root; thus, Xgy-o, rtpTt-o, ^dp7t-ro, cttc/I-zIo, 
re^-vo, &c. 

Obs. 1. Many verbs have a Secondary form in the present 
and imperfect, which has come into general use, while the ori- 
ginal form or theme, has become obsolete, § 116. The root 
1 of the theme nevertheless remains the proper root of the verb 
H in the other tenses, and will be found in the first future by 
Jj striking off -aw. If the letter next preceding be a consonant, 
it is the characteristic of the verb. If it be a long vowel, either 



88 OF THE ROOT. § 82. 

that or its corresponding short vowel is the characteristic. 
But if it be a short or doubtful vowel, the characteristic is 
either that vowel itself, or a x-mute, which has been rejected be- 
fore -ma for the sake of sound. § 6. 8. This Obs. applies 

1st. Verbs in -(raw (-ttco), or |co, are secondary forms, derived 
from primary, whose characteristic is a x-mute (commonly /) 
when the future ends in £w ; or a T-mute (commonly d) when 
the future ends in ctw. The characteristic being substituted 
for crcr, (tt), or J, gives the primary form. Thus, 



Secondary form. 


Future. 


Char. 


Primary form. 


Boot. 


ngdaaa) (ttco), 


ngd^ta, 


r> 


n gay w, 


7i gay. 


XQ(i£(0, 


xoaifco, 


r> 


xgdyco, 


xgay. 


nXdacrca (ttco), 


nXdaw, 


*, 


TiXddai, 


nXad. 


<PQ<*&, 


cpgdorw, 


<5, 


cpgada), 


cpgad. 


CCQ7lCc£(0, 


{ aQ7ldl*(d, 

/ agndaco, 


y> 


agndyoj, 


agnay 
agnad 



2d. Most verbs in -craw are secondary forms from pure verbs 
in oj (§ 116. I.) The primary forms will appear by dropping 
<rx ; thus, yngdcrxw, primary form yngdw, Root, yrjga. 

3d. Many verbs, irregular in the pres, and imperf., are se- 
condary forms from obsolete verbs which furnish the roots for 
the other tenses. See §§ 116 and 117. In nearly all such 
verbs the first root will be found by taking -crco or vo[iai from 
the future as found in the Lexicons ; thus, — 



Se con dary form . 


Future. 


1 Root. 


Primary form. 


Xa/biftdvoj) 


Xrjipofiou, 


Xrjp, 


Xyfico. 


Xav&dvw, 


Xrjah), 


X V &, 


Xrj&b). 


71 VV&dvO/ACC l, 


Tievaofiai, 


71SV&, 


Tiev&co. 


ftalva), 


firjcrofiou, 


(3a, 


(Saw. 



Rem. In reducing secondary into primary forms in this manner, the 
vowel before -<rw and aofxat in the future, made long by § 96, R. 1., must be 
shortened ; and the r-mute, rejected by § 94, R. 2, must be restored, to 
give the proper form of the root ; as in Paivco, and \av6dva}, above. The 
proper characteristic in mute verbs concealed by combining with -<r&>, &c. 
will always be seen in the 2 aorist, or 2 perfect. Thus in \avBdvoi the 2 aor. 
is eXadov showing the characteristic to be 0,and 1 root, consequently, \rj9. 

Obs. 2. The letter % is frequently added to the root before 
tbo termination in the present and imperfect, apparently to 
strengthen the sound, as in rfaw. The characteristic, if a 
middle or aspirate mute, coming before this t, is of course 
changed into its own smooth (§ 6. 2.); thus, Say before -tw 
becomes San- and the verb, Oanrcx). Hence in order to find 
• the root, the characteristic changed by Euphony must be 
restored as in the following words ; 



§ 83. OF THE ROOT. 89 







OF 


THE 


ROOT. 
















Charac. 


Root. 


61&7TTCO, 


by 


Euphony 


for 6l&6rco, 


ft 


sue. 


HQVTtJOJy 




99 






XQvSzb), 


$9 


xgvS. 


TCalvTTTCOj 




JJ 






xalv6TO) 9 


«; 


TCaktiS. 


anna, 




55 






agpTW, 


9) 


ago. 


6&7TTQ), 




99 






6dq)TO) 9 


% 


6&cp. 


0&7TT(A), 




99 






O&CpTQ), 


?> 


Odcop. 


OX&7TTCO, 




99 






(JvAcpTb)) 


?5 


.(TK&(p. 


dqvmo)) 




>J 






dgvq)TC0 9 


W 


dfyficp. 


^7TTO>, 




99 






glcpTO), 


% 


Q<q>. 


q&tvtoj, 




99 






^dgpTW, 


% 


Q&Cp. 



Also auv/oj and ipv/ca have their roots crfivy and ipvy. 

Note. The above list contains all the words to which this observation is 
applicable. 

Obs. 3. Many verbs change the form of the 
root in the second tenses, i. e. in the second fu- 
ture passive, and second aorist ; and in the second 

perfect, and second pluperfect active. These 
forms, for the sake of distinction, may be termed 
the second and third roots — the root of the 
present being the first ecJot. 



§83. OF THE SECOND ROOT. 

The second root is always formed fromthe^rstf, 
according to the following 

RULES. 

1. A long vowel in the first root is changed 

into a in the second j thus, 

Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 

arJ7rw, o~TJ7r- a«7r- 

TOcfyto, TOCfy- TQCtf- 

2. In diphthongs, a is retained and e is reject- 
ed ; as, 

Verb. IstR. 2dR. Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 

yctlvW) cpixlv- cpav- Xelnco, Xeln- Xi>n- 

aa/aj, xul- xcc- (petiyco, cpefiy- cpvy- 

8* 



90 OF THE ROOT. § 84. 

Exc. But liquid dissyllables change ei into a; 
polysyllables into e; as, 

Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 

Diss. reivoi), relv- rav 

Polysyl. dyslQw, tiystg- &ysg- 

3. In dissyllables not pure, e before or after 
a liquid, is changed into a ; as, 

Verb. 1st R. 2d R. Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 

jifivco, rifi- rap- (rriXXo), aril- aral- 

digxco, digx. dagx- TtXixw, nX&x- ttXccx- 

Exc. But s remains unchanged after X, in Xiyco, (tUno), 
cpXeyw. 

4. Pure verbs in -eta and -eco reject the a and 



*; 


as, 












Verb. 


IstR. 


2d R. 






flVX&(0, 


[IVTtb- 


[IVX. 






OTvy£(i)y 


crrvyi. 


atvy 



§ S4. OF THE THIRD ROOT. 

The third root is always formed from the se- 
cond, according to the following 

RULES. 

1. e, of the second root, is changed into o in 
the third ; as, 

Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 3d R. 

Xiyco, X&y. Xey- Xoy- 

dtyelqw, dyelg. &yeg- &yog- 

2. a, of the second root, from e or ec in the 
first, is changed into o in the third ; as, 

Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 3d R. 

nXixto, nX&x- nXax- nXox- 

anelgcx), onslg- utxuq- onog- 

T6lv(x)y TSiV' TOLV- TOP. 

TiflVCO, t4/LI- TOtfl- TOfl' 



§> 85. OF THE ROOT. 91 

3. i of the second root, from et of the first, is 
changed into ol ; as, 

Verb. 1st. R. 2d. R. 3d. R. 

Islrtbi, X&Itx- kt,7t- k0L7l- 

4. a of the second root, from rj or at of the 
first, is changed into yj in the third ; as, 

Verb. 1st. R. 2d. R. 3d. R. 

(T^TTW, <jtJ>t- Gait- (jrjTT- 

<palvw, qpalv- qpav- (prjv- 

likewise dkllw, 6al- 6al- drjl- 

xl&'Qw, xlay- xlay- xlqy. 



§ 85. VERBS WHICH WANT THE SECOND AND 
THIRD ROOTS. 

Many verbs want the second tenses, and perfect and pluperfect 
middle, and consequently the second and third roots. (§'76. 
Obs. 7. N. B.) These are as follows, 

Rule I. Pure verbs want the second root. 

Exc. 1. The following primitives are excepted; yo&w, andta 
fivx&ofiai, yrjOsG), dovnioj, xivnioj, giyioj, nixvim^ oivyeoj, jogta, 
lj]xi(xt 9 dogiw, gt€q£(j) 9 (j%i(x) y dai(x), xotlca and a few others. Axovm 
has the third root axo, but no second. 

Exc. 2. A few dissyllables in /<a and vm have the second and 
third roots the same as the first. 

Note 1. Several of these are reckoned with anomalous verbs. § 117. 
Some verbs derive their second and third roots from obsolete presents ; 
such as, dlpioj and many verbs in -ww and -ave^at, for which see the same 
section. 

Rule 2. Derivatives in -em, -d£b, -ifa -aivo, 
-mo, want the second root. 

Note 2. Primitives in these terminations usually have the second root. 

Obs. 1. Several verbs which have no second root, and con» 
sequently no second aorist in the first conjugation, derive the se. 
cond aorist active and middle from forms in the second conjuga- 
tion ; thus, 5{xa, 2 a. edvv, from dTMI; Salva, 2 a. Wtjv, from 
BHMI ; ytyvucrxui, 2 a. fyruv, from rNJlMl, derived from yvout. 



92 OF THE ROOT. § 86, 

Obs. 2. Many verbs not included under the above rules 
never use the second tenses ; others have them only in the 
passive voice; others again are used in these tenses only by 
certain writers. — In such a variety of usage, it is proper to as- 
sume that all verbs not included in the above classes form the 
second and third roots according to the rules in § 63 and 84. 

§ 86. OF THE TENSE ROOT. 

The Tense-root is that part which remains 
unchanged in all parts of the same tense. It 
consists of all that precedes the termination, ex- 
cept the Augment. 

Obs. 1. In some of the tenses certain letters are inserted 
between the verb-root and terminations. These are called the 
Signs of the tenses to which they belong, because they serve to 
distinguish these tenses from others. These Tense-signs added to 
the verb-root form the Tense-root in these tenses ; and prefixed* 
to the terminations they form the Tense- endings, § 93. 2. « 
Hence in the tenses which have no sign, the Verb-root alone 
is the Tense-root, and the termination alone is the Tense-ending ; 
as, e-lin-ov. (Obs. 4.) 

These letters with the tenses to which they belong, are ex- 
hibited in the following 

TABLE OF TENSE-SIGNS. 

1. In mute and pure verbs the Tense-signs are in the 

Act. Mid. Pass. 

1 Future, -or- -or- -Orja- 

1 Aorist, -a- -<r- -6- , 

2 Future, — — -y cr- 
Perf. and Pluperf. - r - or -oc-. — — 

2. In liquid verbs the tense-signs are in the 

1 Future, -e- -e- .Or\a^ 

1 Aorist, — — -0- 

2 Future, — — -^cr- 
Perf and Pluperf. -a- — — 

Obs. 2. If the characteristic be a 7r-mute or a *-mute, the 
sign of the perfect and pluperfect active is the spiritus asper, 
f ) which combining with the mute before it (§ 6. 3.) changes 



§ 87. 



OF THE AUGMENT. 



93 



n or 6 into q> ; x or y into #. But when the characteristic is 
cp oy x the spiritus asper disappears. 

Qhs. 3. If the characteristic be a vowel, or a x-mute, or a 
liquid, the sign of the Perfect and Pluperfect active is *. 

Obs. 4. In all the Tenses except those in the above table, 
i. e. m the second Aorist through all the voices; — the 2d 
perfect and 2d pluperfect active, and the perfect and pluper- 
fect passive,— and also, in liquid verbs, the First Aorist ac- 
tive and middle, the Tense-root and the Verb-root are always 
the same. So also in the present and imperfect in all voices. 
Exc. But irregular verbs, and those which fall under the 

, Exceptions and Observations, § 82, have the Tense-Root in the 
Present and Imperfect different from the Verb-root — though 
like other verbs it consists of all that precedes the termination 
in the present indicative. Thus, for example, in ttq&vo-oj, the 
Tense-Root in the Pres. and Imperf. is ngtioa-, while the Verb- 
Root is no&y. In la^S&vM the Tense-Root of the Pres. and Im- 

I perfect is lafi6&v-, while the Verb-Root is lrfi ; and so of others. 



WORDS FOR PRACTICE ON THE PRE 



tuttto), I strike, 
teyw; I say. 
£«/oaj, I rejoice, 
cms low, I sow. 
rgscpco, I nourish, 
ayw, I lead. 
xq&Zw, I cry aloud, 
fiallw, I cast, 
neldo), I persuade. 
aivio), I praise. 
QuelSu), I change. 
uqoo), I plow. 
6ke7iw. I see. 



Xetnoj, I leave. 
TzXexco, I fold, 
rotiyw, I eat. 
dcpelXw, I owe. 
{i&QTTTco, I seize. 
tcq6l(J(T(x}, I do. 
qpg^co, I say. 
cpaLvw, I shew. 
&Q7i&'C(D, I plunder, 
eyeiooj, I awake, 
dvco, I sacrifice, 
xahea), I call, 
xelgoj, I shave. 



CEDING RULES. 

d eld co, I fear, 
did&axw, I learn. 
tqbtioi), I turn, 
piaivw, I pollute* 
ne/unco, I send, 
fiivoo, I remain. 
j>6,u(a 9 I assign. 
Ttoiico, I make. 
OTsllw, I send. 
/usIqo), I divide. 
nsLQ&'to), I try. 
7tor[0a), I burn, 
qalvw, I sprinkle. 



§ 87. II. OF THE AUGMENT. 

1. The Augment is prefixed to the root in the 
Preterite Tenses. 

2. Of these the Imperfect and Aorists have 
the augment in the indicative only. The Per- 

\ feet, Pluperfect, and Paulo-post Future retain it 
through all the moods. 



94 RULES FOR THE AUGMENT. § 88 

3. The Present and Future have no aug- 
ment. 

4. When the augment prefixes a syllable to the verb, it is 
called the syllabic augment. When it only lengthens the ini- 
tial vowel, it is called the Temporal augment. The first is used 
when the verb begins with a consonant, the second, when it 
begins with a vowel or diphthong. 



§88. RULES FOR THE AUGMENT. 

1. If the verb begins with, a consonant, the 
augment s is prefixed ; as, timta, etvnrov] plntcd, 
epptTtrov, § 6. 5. 

2. The perfect also reduplicates the initial 
consonant; as, <rt>7trc), perf. rervcpa. 

Exc. 1. The aspirate reduplicates its own 
smooth; as, Oav[id£a } perf. vedavfjtaxa] (pouvo, 
perf. nzcpafyxa, § 6. 4. 

Exc. 2. Verbs beginning with p, yv, <pQ, or a 
before or after a consonant, do not reduplicate ; 
thus, 



yv- yvdco, %yvo)xa. 

(pd- (p#/u>, eyQixa. 

rev- ipevdoi), eipevxa. 



da- £dw, etyxa. 

cm- crjTEvdco, Scrnevxa. 
or- cni(p(Oy eoTSya. 



Obs. 1. Sometimes also verbs beginning with xt, and ttt, do 
not reduplicate ; as, 

xi- xxstvot), exzayxa. xrl^co, %xxixa. 

7tx- 7ZT0ba), imdyxa. 

And sometimes, though rarely, those beginning with y\ 61. 

3. When the perfect reduplicates the initial 
consonant, the pluperfect indicative receives a 
second augment ; as, rvnto, perf. rs-?v<pa, plu- 
perf. i-re-rvcpecv. 

Otherwise not ; as, gin™, perf. ^iqqiqxx^ pluperf. IqqvcpBiv. 

4. If the verb begin with a, f, o, or with av, at, 



§ 89. AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS. 95 

01, the initial vowel is changed into its own long, 
and i of the diphthoug is subscribed ; thus, 



«> 


av6oi, 


I perforin, 


^vvov. 


«) 


iXjr/Jw, 


I hope, 


r\kni'C ) ov* 


°, 


071&£(a), 


I afford, 


(brta^ov. 


av, 


ctvlz&voj, 


I encrease, 


rjv!;avov. 


at, 


ftlOWj 


I raise, 


r^gor. 


01, 


OlKltp), 


I build, 


(DXLtyV, 



Exc. I. E is often changed into its own diph- 
thong ; as, 

s/w, I have, styov. 

The verbs which change s into sv are the following: Mw, 
etouai, eOl'Cw, elloo'oj, Skxa 9 ekxsu), klxvw, blew, e'Aw, enofioti, enco, 
(this verb retains the augment through all the moods) eg&w. 
ige®, BQJtoi^ kgnvCp), &gvw, £crr»jaG>, tort&w, e/w, and ew, 20. 

Exc. 2. If the verb begins with so, the e is un- 
changed and the o augmented; as, soprano, aoproc- 
%ov. 

So also some 2d pluperf. active ; viz. from the 2d. perf. 
eoKTToc, pluperf. s&Ittslv ; — soixa, euxeiv ; — eogya, e&gyeiv. 

Exc. 3. *Aw, I blow ; diixa, I hear ; ui]diaauj, I am unused ; 
arjdito t uat,, I loathe; retain the initial vowel unchanged; as 
also some verbs derived from olxog, ohog, olavbg, and ot«|; as, 
olviXsa, I smell of iv\ne, oXvl'Qov ; and also perfects middle when 
the root begins with ov ; as, oXda, plup. oXdew. 

5. If the initial vowel is not a, s, o, or av, at, 
oi, it is not augmented: but i and v short are 
made long ; as, 

i, Xxotxai, TxofiijV. 

v, vSgl'Qw, vftgi^ov. 



(bdot), ihOov. 



£t, elx&foj, ei'xatov. 

ev, stigtaxw, Evgvaxov 

ov, otii&tw, oxjra^ov. 

See Exceptions, § 90. 4. 5. 



§ 89. AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS. 

1. When the verb is compounded with a pre- 
position, the augment comes between the prepo- 
sition and the verb ; as ; 7tpoa-<pepcj, 7tpoa-S'<pspov. 



96 OBSERVATIONS ON THE AUGMENT. <§ 90. 

Obs. 1. The prepositions drop their final vowel before trie 
augment £; as, dnocpalpco, dnecpouvov ; xccjaOdlXoi), xcntOplXov : 
—But, 

Obs. 2. tteqI before e remains unchanged ;ngb usually com- 
bines with it by contraction ; thus, 7igoi6rjv becomes ngovGrjv. 
§ 38. II. 

Obs. 3. When v, in the prepositions uvv and &v 9 is changed 
into another consonant, by the rules of euphony, § 6. 15., it 
is recovered when separated from that consonant, by the aug- 
ment s • thus, dvXleyw, (jvv&leyov ; avyygacpo), avv&ygacpov ; £[i~ 
uevoi, foifievop. 

2. Yerbs compounded with Svg and sv, take the augment 
after the particle, when the simple verb begins with a, e, o, or 
with af, oa, ol ; as, duaagsariu), dvai^giaisov ; efiogxiw, etiwgxeov 

3. But if the simple verb begin with any other vowel or con- 
sonant, dvg is augmented, ev remains unchanged ; as, dvaxvxew, 
idvarv/sov, dedu<jJv/7]xa ; svtu/sm, evTv%7jXa. 

4. Other compounds generally take the augment at the be- 
ginning. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

The exceptions from these rules are but few, and will be 
best learned by practice. Some writers augment certain com- 
pound verbs in the beginning, and others in the middle; 
while other verbs are sometimes augmented in both ; as, inia- 
Tauai, I understand, ^maTdftvv ; avooOoWj >I erect, 7\v(bg6ovv , 
xuOeudo), I sleep, xadrfidov or ixuOsvdop ; £voxXi(o y T disturb 
rjvfh/leov. 



§ 90. OBSERVATIONS ON THE AUGMENT. 

1. In the early Greek poets the use of the augment is very 
fluctuating, the same word sometimes occurring with the aug. 
nicnt and sometimes without it ; as, eZicpege and sxyege, h(\ 
carried out ; elafie audhxGa, hetook ; y\yev and dyer, he brought ; 
id&tiexto, did€xT0 9 and demo, he had received. 

Obs. 1. From the antiquity of the Ionic, this has been usually 
considered a peculiarity of that dialect ; but it occurs frequently 
in the Attic writers, particularly in choruses; as, vtiOrj for 
tavdrj, he was driven ; yeyivrjTo for tyeyivvro, it had been ; dvd* 
lojxa for dvrilwxa, I have spent. 



«* 



§91. OF THE TERMINATION. 97 

2. In Homer and Hesiod, aorists often receive the redupli- 
cation, which remains through all the moods ; thus, xexd/uoo for* 
xaucj, I shall have laboured; lel&Geadou for h&SeoOcci, to have 
received. 

3. In all dialects, verbs beginning with l and /u frequently 
take el or el as the augment of the perf.; as, eVlricpa for Ulrica, 
I have taken ; 8^{i<xqtul for ^.ifxagrav^ it has been decreed* 

4. The Attics often change the simple augment s into r t , 
and augment the initial vowels of verbs beginning with e£ and 
ev ; as, rfi uvduyv for edvv6.urjv, I was able ; r^xaXpv for eixa'cpv, 
I assimilated ; 7]v/6ui]v for sti%6tfiT]v 9 I prayed ; rfieLv for ei'dew, 
I knew. 

5. In verbs beginning with a, s, o, or with av, ca, ot, the 
Attics sometimes prefix e instead of the usual augment ; i. e. 
they use the syllabic instead of the temporal augment; as,'£a£a, 
for^jla; ealaMa for r\lwxa. Sometimes they use both; as, 
ogdco, I see, hihgaov, edgaxa. 

6. When the verb begins with a, e, or o, followed by aeon- 
sonant, the first two letters are sometimes repeated before the 
ordinary augment. . This is called the Attic Reduplication; 
thus, 

dye/oco, I assemble ; rtfegxa, Attice, ay-riyegxa. 
ojo), / smell ; wda, 6d-ioda. 

ogvooti), I dig ; (bgv%oc, og-ugv/a. 

Obs. 2. The pluperfect sometimes takes a new augment 
on the initial vowel of the reduplication ; thus, ax-r\xoa, tjx. 
rixoeiv. 

Obs. 3. This form of the verb frequently changes a long 
vowel or diphthong into a short or doubtful vowel in the third 
syllable ; thus, alr\ltcpu for r^Eicpa, and alrjufjuou for ^leifificuj 
from dlel(p(x) ; tcx^xou for r\xou, from dxouo). 

7. Rule. The simple augment is confined to the indicative 
mood;, the reduplication remains in all the moods. 



§ 91. III. OF THE TERMINATION. 

1. The terminations are added immediately to the tense 
root, and by their changes serve to distinguish the voices 9 
moods, numbers, and persons. See § 213, p. 299. 

2. In verbs of the first conjugation the termination gene- 
rally consists of two parts, the mood -vow el, which serves to dis- 

9 



98 OF THE TERMINATION. § 91. 

tinguish the moods, and the final letters, which indicate the 
voice, number and person. 

3. The Mood-vowel is the first letter of the termination, and 
in the indicative mood is always short or doubtful ; (except in 
the pluperfect act. and mid. which have always ei, ;) in the sub- 
junctive it is always long, and in the optative always a diph- 
thong. 

4. The Final letters are divided into two classes, Primary 
and Secondary ; so called because the former are always used 
in the indicative of the primary tenses, (§ 77. Obs. 3.) and 
the latter in the indicative of the secondary, and because the 
secondary always correspond to, and are derived from the 
primary. They are as follows : 

ACTIVE VOICE. 





P 


imary. 




Secondary. 






1. 


2. 3. 




1. 


2. 


3. 


Sing. 


-o, 


-*£, -*, 


Sing. 


~ v i 


-ft 


> 


Dual. 


5 


-70^, -TO)', 


Dual. 


"~"5 


-TOy, 


-T?*, 


Plural 


. -{ISV, 


-T£, -VTUl. 


Plural. 


•jtB*, 


-TS, 


-y. 




9 


MIDDLE AN 


D PASSIVE. 








Primary. 




Secondary. 






1. 


2. 3. 




1. 


2. 


3. 


Sing. 


-fiat, 


-crat, -T«t, 


Sing. 


■m 


.00, 


-TO, 


Dual. 


-jueOov, 


-odov, -odov, 


Dual. 


./usdov. 


.aOor, 


-oOtjv, 


Plural 


, -/ueda, 


-o0£, -viai. 


Plural. 


-fieOiXy 


-ade, 


-VT0. 



5. These final letters with the mood-vowels prefixed, make 
up the terminations through the whole verb in the indicative, 
subjunctive, and optative moods. The subjunctive mood al- 
ways takes the primary final letters, and the optative the se- 
condary. The final letters and mood-vowels of the imperative 
and infinitive will be seen in the following tables. 

6. N. B. The indicative mood vowel o, or the subjunc- 
tive oi, combining with the final letter o, makes w ; with -^to-*, 
they make -ovoi and -mm, § 6. 8, and 16, and IS. In the 2d 
person singular, Middle and Passive, the primary final letters 
are -crcet ; combined with the mood vowels e or rj, they make 
.eaai and -yeai, which by elision and contraction become r l9 
§ 101. 8. So also the secondary -oo with e prefixed, makes 
-boo, and by elision and contraction -ov. The other combina- 
tions will be easily understood. See § 101. 8, as above. 



§ 92. TABLES OF TERMINATIONS. 

§ 92. TABLES OF TERMINATIONS. 

I. ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE. 



99 



k-UUJ 



Pres. and Put. 
S> :>©, -eig, -6l, 

D. -STO^, -£TOJ>, 

P. -ofiev, -£t£, -ovoi. 



Primary Tenses. 

1st and 2d Perfect. 
-a, -a£, -e, 

-ajov, -aiov, 
-ausv* -are, -aat. 



Secondary Tenses 

Imperf. and 2d Aor. \lst and 2d Pluperf. 
S. -oj>, -eg, -e, 

D. -£TOJ>, -BTTJV, 

P. J6[18V, -ST£, -OJ\ 



•6iv, -eig, -et, 

-eiTOv, -elrtjv, 
eifiev, .ens, mSicrav. 



S. -co .tp, s , 

P. -toper, .t]Te, -to(n. 



S. -Ol/IM, -Ofr£, -ot, 
D. -OtTO^, -olTTjV, 

P. .oiusv. -one. -oisv. 



s. 

D. 
P. 



e, 


-era), 


€T0^, 


-iT(QV, 


£T£, 


-STcacrav, 


or 


-OVTWV. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

The same as 
first column. 



OPTATIVE. 

The same as 
first column. 

IMPERATIVE. 

The same as 
first column. 

INFINITIVE. 

-ivou. 



1st Aor. 
•afiev, -ens, .av. 



The same as 
first column. 



■oufiev, -aire, -aiev. 



-0*>, -&TCD, 
-CCTOP, -&TtoV, 

-«T6, -ditoaav, 
or -&vx(dv. 



N. -co*', -ovaa, -o^, 
G. *ovrog, -ovarjg, &c. 



PARTICIPLES. 

-tog, -uia, -O5, 
-6iog, -v/ac, -6wg. 



-a£, -a da, -«v, 
-avjog,-&(Jt]g,-avTOS, 



Obs. In the above table, all the terminations in the first column, 
' after the indicative, belong to the present, the future, and 2d aorist. 
All those in the 2d, to the first and second perfect; and all those in 
the 3d, to the 1st aorist. 



100 



TABLES OF TERMINATIONS. 



§ 92. 



II. MIDDLE VOICE. 









INDICATIVE. 












Primary Tenses. 








MIDDLE 

Pres 


AND PASSIVE. 

and Fat. 








s. 

D. 
P. 


-o/uoa, 

.oiaeOov, 

-o^eOcc, 


^1 

-eauov, 

-eode, 


-ETUI, 

.sodov, 
-ovTai. 














Secondary Tenses 








Imperf 


1 2c? Aorist. 




1st Jlorist. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


-dfiedov, 


-ov, 

-eoOov, 

-ecrde, 


-i(jdr\v, 
-ovto. 


-^ueOov, 
.fyjEda, 


.(0, 

-a vdov, 
.aoOs, 


-are, 
-&o~0r]P 9 % 
-ay to. 








SUBJUNCTIVE. 






S. 
D. 
P. 


-(.QUSOOV, 


"ft 

.i](jdov, 


-rjxat, 

-rjodov, 

-(avxau. 


The same as 
first Column. 








OPTATIVE. 






S. 
D. 
P. 


-oturjp, 

-ol{isQov, 

-olfisOa, 


-010, 

-oloOov, 
-ovoOe, 


-OtTO, 

-oiadrjv, 

.OiVTO. 


-OLlfJtrjv, 

-at^edop, 
-alfiEda, 


.ato, 

-cuadov, 
-avads, 


.auo, 
-cdo-0r\V) 

.OLIVTO. 








IMPERATIVE. 






S. 
D. 
P. 




-01/, 

-euOov, 
-egOe, 


.eo-Qwv, 
-scrOwcrav. 




-aadov, 
-arrds, 


A add), 

-hoQiov, 

-do-Owo-ar, 






-scrOai. 


INFINITIVE. 

1 


.aoOai, 




N. 
G. 


-6uEvog, 
-ouivov, 


.o/uivrj, 
-Ofiiprjg, 


PARTIC 
-djUEVOV, 

-Oftivov. 


IPLES. 

-duEvog, 
-afxevov, 


-auivrj, 


.fjtuevov* 



06.5. In the above table of the middle voice, the termina- 
tions of the Perf. and Pluperf. are omitted, being the same 
throughout as those of the Perf. and Pluperf. passive. 



§ 02. TABLES OF TERMINATIONS. 

III. PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Primary Te?ises. 

PASSIVE AND MIDDLE. 

Perfect. 

-vac, -rafr, 

-odov, -udov, 
-oOs, -vjcti. 



101 



S. -{IOU, 

D. -}ie6ov, 
P. - t usOa, 



Secondary Tenses. 



Pluperfect. 



1st and 2d Jlorists. 



s. 

D. 
P. 


.u&Qov, 
-fieOa, 


-GO, 

-uQov, 
-ode, 


-TO, 

-adrjv, 

-VTO. 


-rjfiev, 


.TJTOV, 
-7]T8, 


-y 9 

-l\T7]V, 

-rjaav. 








SUBJUNCTIVE. 


i 

•7]TOV, 

~n T£ > 




S. 
D. 
P. 


-ftevog 6, 
-iiivoi (bjLiev, 


ijTOV, 


i\TOV, 

(ben. 


-co, 

'WflSV, 


-r\JOV, 
-ticri. 








OPTATIVE. 






S. 
D. 
P. 


-/usvog ei'qv, 

-JLISVO), 


eVqg, 

eYtjtoV) 
el'i]TS, 


eh], 
elr\xr]v, 

8lT]0-<XV. 


.elrjfisv, 


-slrjg, 

-Eir\TOV, 


-sir], 

-Sir\zrjv, 

-elrjoav. 








IMPERATIVE. 






S. 
D. 
P. 




-cro, 

-odov, 

.ads, 


-o0(j), 

-udiav, 

-aQuaav. 




-t}tov, 

-TJT6, 


-rfcdioav 








INFINITIVE. 










•uQai. 


1 

PARTICIPLES. 


-r[vat. 




N. 
G. 


M. 

-fiivog, 


F. 

-flirt], 
-fiiv7]gj 


N. 

-jLtevov, 

-{LLSVOV. 


M. 

-elg, 
-evTog, 


F. 

-el act, 
.stcrrjg, 


N. 
-eV, 
-ivxog. 



For the terminations of the pres. imperf. 1st, 2d, and 3d 
fut. of the passive voice, see the terminations in the first column 
of the preceding table. 

9* 



102 FORMATION OF THE TENSES. § 93 

§93. FORMATION OF THE TENSES IN MUTE 
AND PURE VERBS. 

I. General Rule. The Imperfect is formed 
from the Present, and all the other tenses from 
their Verb-root by adding the tense-endings (§ 86). 

Obs. 1. The 2 Future and 2 Aorist add the tense-endings 
to the second root, the 2 Perfect and 2 Pluperfect Active to the 
third root, and all others to the first. 

Exc. Tqstho, TQtcpw, and o-Toiqto, in the Perfect and Pluperfect 
Passive, have the second root. fysvyco and xev&w in the 2 Perf. 
Active, have sometimes the first instead of the third root. Ilsfx- 
7ro), xksmat, TQtTicx), kiyoj, and TQecpa), in the Perfect and Pluperfect 
Active, change e of the first root into o. 

2. TABLE OF TENSE-ENDINGS. 

Tense. Active. 

1 Future, -a-co (liq. -e-w) 

2 Future, 

1 Aorist, -(T-a (liq. -a) 

2 Aorist, -ov 

Perfect, -x-«, or --a, §94. 

Pluperf. -x-eiv, or -siv 

2 Perfect, -a 

2 Pluperf. -uv 

Fut.-Perf. or Paulo-post-fut. -a-oftou -a-opai. 

3. RULES FOR EACH TENSE. 

Active Voice. 
Imperfect. Prefix the augment, and change -co into -ov. 
Future. Add -aco to the 1st root. 

1 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -aa to the 1st root. 

2 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -ov to the 2d root. 
Perfect. Augment, reduplicate, and add -y.ct or -a to the 1st 

root, § 94, R. 1. 
Ptuperf. Augment, &c, and add -xuv or -uv to the 1st root. 
2 Perf. Augment, reduplicate, and add -« to the 3d root. 
2 Ptuperf. Augment, &c, and add -uv to the 3d root. 

Middle Voice. 
Imperfect. Prefix the augment, and change -ojiai into -opty. 
Future. Add -ooyaxi to the 1st root. 



Middle. 




Passive. 


-cr-opai (liq. 


-S-OfiUXl 


-dij-ooficci 
-r\o-oiiai 






-o-a^7]v (liq. 


-ayirp) 


-\r^i]v 


-0^ll]V 




-7}V 


-flCU 




-[icti 


-fl7]V 




-flfiV 



V 



94. SPECIAL RULES FOR MUTES. 103 

1 Aorlst. Prefix the augment, and add -vufjtrjv to the 1st root. 

2 Aorisl. Prefix the augment, and add -ofirjv to the 2d root. 
The Perfect and Pluperfect are the same as in the Passive Voice. 
Fat. Perf. Augment, reduplicate, and add -aopai to the 1st root. 

Passive Voice. 

Imperfect. Prefix the augment, and change -opcci into -ofitjv. 

1 Future. Add -Q"i)fjop(u to the 1st root. 

2 Future. Add -rpopai to the 2d root. 

1 Aorisl. Prefix the augment, and add -dry to the 1st root. 

2 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -r t v to the 2d root. 
Perfect. Augment, reduplicate, and add -pat to the 1st root. 
Pluperf Augment, &c., and add -pr\v to the 1st root. 

Fut. Perf Augment, reduplicate, and add -aopai to the 1st root. 



§ 94. SPECIAL RULES FOR MUTES. 

Rule 1. When the characteristic is a 7t-mute 
or a #-mute ? the perfect active is formed by 
adding - c -a, and the pluperfect by adding - c -etv ; 
all others add -xa, -xeiv, (§ 86. Obs. 3.) thus, 

leiTibi, Root kslTt- perf. Xi-Xsnt.-a, combined X6Xeiq>a. 

pluperf. eledeljt'-eiv, )5 ilelelyew,, 

nXixcu, Root Ttlsx- perf. 7t6.7tlex--oc 9 „ nanls/a. 

pluperf. £7ts-7il£x. c -6iv 9 „ insTile/eiy. 

Rule 2. When the characteristic is a r-mute, it 
is rejected before a consonant in the active and 
middle voice, and changed into a in the passive; 
thus, 

Jlctive, 7teld(t), Root7ts/#- 1 Fut. tibI-ow, perf. ninei-xa. 
Middle, 1 Fut. iteloopai, 1 Aor. insi-o&firjv. 

Passive, 1 fut. itBto-Qr^opon, 1 Aor. Inelu-driv^ perf. n&neio-pou. 

Exc. The T-mute is rejected in the passive also, when a 
liquid precedes it ; as, Tciod-a, 1 f. p. neo-Qricropou, perf. ni- 
7160-fiou. Also a n- mute before poet ; as, T607r-w, perf. p. d-Teo-pat. 

Obs. JlsvOw, creuto, reu/G), and /eco, (§ 96. Exc. 2. third,) 
have v instead of ev before a consonant in the passive ; as, 



104 EXAMPLES OF THE FORMATION OF TENSES. § 95, 

nvo-flfeouai, ov(j-6i\oo{jicti, (§ 96. R. 2.) &c. ; cpevym has either 
V or sv ; as, 7TE(pvy-[i<xi,, or niwevy-nai. 



§ 95. METHOD OF FORMING THE TENSES. 
Ticjy I honour. 

This Verb, requiring no insertion or change of letters for the 

sake of euphony, affords the simplest example for showing the 

formation of tenses. A second and third root (ta) and the tenses 

formed from them are here assumed, though they do not exist in 

g the Verb, to show the manner in which these tenses are formed. 



Active. 



Middle 



Passive. 



Pres. 


t/-w, 


jl-ojuaiy 


jl-ojuat. 


Imp. 
Fut. 




£-Tl-6{tT]V, 


i-Tio/uijy. 

TvO^G-OflOLl. 


2 Fut. 






T*-rj(7-o ( ua*. 


1 Aor. 

2 Aor. 


£-Tt,-0 «, 
ETL-OV, 


E-Tl-OUljV, 


i-Tl-6-yv. 


Perf. 


76-Tl.X.CX, 


li-Ti.fmi. 


T&-U. {lat,. 


Pluperf. 
2 Perf. 
2 Pluperf. 
P. P. Fut. 


i-Te-rl-K-eiV) 
I-ie-tI.eiv, 


JE-li-0-0{HXl. 


£-TE.tI-(17]P. 
TE-Tl'O-0{4(Xl 



netdi*), I persuade. 

2. This verb has the first Root neid-, the second mO-, the 
third noid-, and its characteristic being a i-mute, it comes un- 
der Rule 2. § 94. 



Ac Hi 



ive. 



Middle^. 



Passive. 



Pres. 


TTStO-b), 


7Zetd-0[4.(Xl) 


tieIO o/uat>. 


Imp. 


%-7lSl0-OV, 


E-7lEld'6/U7]V, 


E-TtElO-OjLlTjV. 


Fut. 


7lSl-(T-(A) 9 


7TEl-<J-0[l(Xt, 9 


TtEiG-d^cr-ofiai, 


2 Fut. 






7Tld-r[(J-0/U(Xl. 


1 Aor. 


l , ~7Tfl-(J.a 9 


8 TtEb.G-dlXTjV^ 


£-7TEl(T-d-TjJ>. 


2 Aor. 


e-mO-ov, 


£ nid dfirjv, 


£.7lld-7]V. 


Perf. 


ne'-Tzei.x-a, 


ni.nEMJ./uai,. 


ninELcr/uai. 


Pluperf. 


E-7l8-7lSl.X.ElV 


,l.ne-7TEl(J-[ir]v. 


l.TlS-7lElV-[ATlV. 


2 Perf. 


ni-Tioid.ct, 






2 Pluperf. 


t-ne-TtotO.siVy 






P. P. Fut. 




TtE-TtEl-O-OlULts. 


TIE TlEl-U-Ofiai* 



§ 95. EXAMPLES OF THE FORMATION OF TENSES. 



105 



3= The following examples fall under Rule 1, § 94. They 
are exhibited with the parts divided and then combined, to 
show the effect of the rules of euphony, § 6, in combining the 
parts. It will be a profitable exercise for the pupil to apply 
these rules for every change. 

The characteristic a Tt-mute. 
Xel7Tco, I leave. 
Roots, 1. "kern., 2. Xut-^ 3. loin.. 





ACTIVE VOICE. 






Parts divided. 


.Parts combined 


Pres. 


Xelit-w, 


lelTtw. 


Impefrf. 


%-Xe iTi-o v, 


elsinov. 


Fut. 


* Isto-cr-co, 


lelifjw. 


1 Aor 


M-leiTt-a-a, 


eleaf/a. 


2 Aor. 


e-Xin-ov, 


eXmov. 


Perf. 


Xi-XsiTt- -«, 


lelsiqxx. 


Pluperf. 


i-Xe-Xeln--eiv, 


ilelsiqpeiv. 


2 Perf. 


Is-XOCTX-U^ 


Xsloinu. 


2 Pluperf. 


i-ks-XolTt-sip, 

MIDDLE VOICE. 


elslolneiv 


Pres. 


lelTt-ojuat,, 


IsIttoiuoci. 


I m perf. 


e-hsi7i-6{Li?]v. 


ilstnofir/v. 


Fut. 


IslTt-a-o/Liou, 


Xelxpo^av. 


1 Aor. 


£-lei7V-CT.&{iT]V, 


e^Enpd i u?]v. 


2 Aor. 


i Xt,7t.6/Ll7]Vy 


kXinburiv. 


Perf. 


Xe-leiTt.tjat,, 


hike initial. 


Pluperf. 


i-lB-lelTr-iLiijv, 


elsleliiiUTjv. 


P. P. Fut. 


Is-Xein-g-ofiou, ' 

PASSIVE VOICE*. 


leXeli/JOficti. 


Pres. 


XelTt-o/ucu, 


kelno/uai,. 


Irnperf. 


i-Xei7T-6[iriv, 


ilsino/uyp. 


Fut. 


lein-drio-oiiai) 


Xsvo^Q^ao^iai. 


2 Fut. 


Xi7t-y\G-o^on^ 


XtTt^ao/uat. 


1 Aor. 


e-hslTt-d'-qv, 


iltlcpdijv. 


2 Aor. 


i-ll7t-7]V, 


UlTlTJV. 


Perf. 


li-leiTt./uai, 


leXei/uficti. 


Pluperf. 


£-XB-Xsln-[ir}v, 


ilslsl/uiuTiv. 


P. P. Fut. 


Is-leln-cr-ojLiai,, 


Isleli/JOfiai,. 



106 



EXAMPLES OF THE FORMATION OF TENSES. § 95. 



The characteristic a x-mute. 

nXix(o 9 I fold. 

Roots, 1. nXex-. 2. nXax-. 3. nXox- 





ACTIVE VOICE 






Parts divided. 


Parts combined* 


Pres. 


nlex.to, 


nXixto. 


Imperf. 


e-nXex-ov, 


enXexov. 


Fut. 


nXix-cr-co, 


7iXi£(D. 


1 Aor. 


s-nXsx-a-a, 


cnXe ? or . 


2 Aor. 


E.nXax.ov 9 


enXaxov. 


Perf. 


7ie-nXex--(x 9 


nanls/a. 


Pluperf. 


e-tie-tiXex- -eiv 9 


i^enXi^siy. 


2 Perf. 


ne-nlox.a, 


ninXoxa. 


2 Pluperf. 


£.7ZE-7lX6x.ELVy 


BTienXoxevv. 




MIDDLE VOICE. 




Pres. 


7zkbX'OUttt, 9 


TtXiX0[i(Xl. 


Imperf. 


b-7rXex-6 i UT]v, 


etcXexo^v. 


Fut. 


nX4x-(r-ouai 9 


TlXi^OjLlOU. 


1 Aor. 


£-7iXeX-0.6l[A11V, 


inXE^dfirjv. 


2 Aor. 


i-nXax-6iii]v 9 


inXaxojiiTjv. 


Perf. 


7t£-7lXeX-{Ml, 9 


rcinXEy/Liai. 


Pluperf. 


l.7is-nXex-fiT]v 9 


i7TETtXiyfij]P m 


P. P. Fut. 


ne.nX&x-cr-ofiai, 

PASSIVE VOICE. 


TtEnX&ionMu. 


Pres. 


TlX&X-OfltXlj 


nXixoiiOLi. 


Imperf. 


i-7iXex-6 t UT]v 9 


£nXsx6fxrjv, 


Fut. 


nXex-0r\(j.o/uai, 9 


nXsyOifiooiiai 


2 Fut. 


7iX(xx-r\v-oixai, 


nXaxrioofiott,, 


1 Aor. 


i-7iX£x-0-r]v, 


lnXi%dr\v. 


2 Aor. 


£-7lX&X-7]V, 


inXdxrjv. 


Perf. 


Tri-nXex-fiai, 


ninXey [icu. 


Pluperf. 


LnE-nXix-jiiTjv, 


InsjiXiy firjv •. 


P. P. Fut. 


7i6.nXix-(j-oticu 9 


TtenXl^ouai. 






^ 96. SPECIAL RULES FOR PURE VERBS. 107 

§ 96. SPECIAL RULES FOR PURE VERBS. 

N. B. In the rules for the Moods arid Tenses of verbs, let 
it be remembered that, 

The three short vowels, a, e f o, 
have their own long, y, ?/, w, 

and their own diphthongs, at, ei, ov. 

Rule 1. Verbs in -do, .-&>, and -oo, change the 
short vowel into its own long before a conso- 
nant ; as, 

<^la), Root <p&s- 9 1 fut. (pL^nao, perf. jtsfyitepcOj &c. 

Exceptions. 

1. -eta after g or i retains a; and -foxq and -pota 

after a vowel ; as, Iota, iddco ; xomdo, Homctao; 
ye/ido, ysXdaa. 

Likewise dissyllables in -d&) which do not pass into -yfu; as, 
xkaw, xlaaoj. But those which pass into -yfu have y, ex- 
cept cpddoj. 

The following also retain « ; viz. axgodo/ucu, tist&cq, Ja^do), 
xge/u&oj, and tfqpdw ; dicp&w has a or r\. 

2. Tew in -ew retain s ; viz. dae'eo, dta'a), doaea), £aj, e^e'eo, vsizia) 9 

|eco, dAe'co, TfAeco, toso). 
Likewise those which form new presents in -wvco, -vvv^n, and 

-orxco; as, uQEoxa from doeo ; eW&B and bvvvui from eo), 

retain e. 
Sixteen in -£0) have £ or )? ; viz. uldio/i&i 9 alvi&, dwiopat,, dA^e'o, 

a/dsouou, dew, xalsti), xrjdia, xoosa), {la/Bopou, o^eco, (o£a)) 

TTodia, novio), orsoe'a), qpoot'co, cpoovi(D ; besides a few others 

seldom used; as, Korea), tfta ( a), /ooe'a). 
5>*# in -e'eo have £u ; viz. tips®, nUa, /ia, qbcd, 1 flow ; Ota, 1 

run; and vew, I swim; but ^o>, / speak; dew, I place; 

and via, I spin, have rj. 

3. In primitive verbs, -6co retains o ; such as, dooo), 6*do), M6o), 

6 ( u6co, o>6co. Likewise those which form others in -*>tfo) 
and -o-KO), have o; but those which pass into -go//,*, have 
a) ; except dldwiu, which has o in the 1 fut. and 1 aor. 
passive; as, do(h\<JOfmt 9 £d60qv. 



108 SPECIAL RULES FOR PURE VERBS. § 96. 

4. The anomalous verbs aa/co and xlal® change on, into av ; as, 

xala, 1 fut. xctuaco, &c. 

5. Algta, £i5oeco, and a/eco, (for f^co,) retain e before only; as, 

tt^TJcrw, aloedriootKxi, alge0r]v 9 a?grjfiai 9 &c. 

/?w/e 2. Pure verbs which have e, or a doubt- 
ful vowel, or a diphthong before a consonant, in 
the active and middle voice, insert a before a 
consonant in the passive ; as, 

Perf. Act. 1 Fut. Pass. 1 Aor. Pass. Perf. Pass. 
dta'-w, r[le-}ca, also -dr\ao fiav 9 r^io-6r]v 9 ^Iso-fiai. 

ysla-ti), yeyela-xa 9 yslao-dr\ooii(xi 9 iyslao dr\v 9 yeyilao [achi. 

7TQL-(D 9 7T87TQL.Xa 9 7tgiO^Qr\O0iJLai 9 87tglO-drjV 9 Tl&TlQlO-fiai, 

avv-(D, r\vv-xa 9 avvO'Ot\oo^ion 9 i\vvo-Qr]v 9 Y\vvo-[iai. 

nal-0) 9 7iE7Tou,-za 9 7iaMj-dr\(J0iJL0U, £nalo-Qr\v 9 ninaio-iiai. 

xlal-ti) 9 xexlav-xa 9 xlava-6r[O0£iai,, exlavo-OtjV, xsxlavo-juai. 

So also verbs in -eloi, -sum, -o/cd, and -ouco. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

To this rule there are many exceptions ; as, 

1. Five which have s before a consonant do not insert a; viz. 

alviOy atf^eco, £fi£{j) 9 eg£(o 9 6l£(0. 

2. Eight which have «; viz. axgoao[iai 9 6sao^iai 9 lao t uai 9 xovidw 9 

6gdo) 9 7isigao[iai 9 7xsgda 9 qxaoaa). 

3. One which has i ; viz. t/co. 

4. Eleven which have v ; viz. aorta, 6 qvu>, dtio, Ouw, Idovu, 

XOXVO), X(x)lu0 9 IvlD, /U1]Vl)(D, £L>G), TQU(D . 

5. Seven which have ev ; viz. dsvw, vs6(o 9 v£m 9 (vsvoti) tcp£o, 

(nvsvow) ()6(D, (qsvow) creto, %£(d, (%svog)). Also many 
verbs in -svu, derived from nouns; as, Saodsvco. 

6. One which has ov ; viz. Aouco, as, lovOJ\oo[iai 9 &c. 

7. Fifteen verbs sometimes insert o before a consonant in the 

passive voice, and sometimes not; viz. agvm, dgaw, ^co, 
ehxo), xatu, xsghv, xvaw 9 xogeu, [xvau) 9 ^a^O), dv6ca 9 naia) 9 
7tv£(D 9 %vav& 9 ipda). 

Bale 3. -oo, forming verbs in -/zi, inserts a be- 
fore a consonant in the passive voice ; as, yvo^ 
yvoodrfiofjjou, &c. 

Except oTQ(bvv/Lu from orgSa, and dldw/Lu from ddco, which 
have oTgadrjooinai, dodrioofiat,, &c. 



§ 97 OF LIQUID VERBS. 109 

§ 97. OF LIQUID VERBS. 

• 

Liquid verbs differ from mute and pure verbs 
in forming some of the tenses, as follows : 

1. The First-Future shortens the root, if it 
contain a diphthong, by rejecting the last of the 
two vowels; and instead of -<tq and -aopu, adds 
-aj and -socage, (contracted -q and -oi^oc/); as, 
Verb. R. 1 Fut. Act. 1 Fut. Mid. 

{leva, {iev- {isv-eo, contr. fiev-& 9 p&v-iapat, contr. psv-ovfiat. 
TSivQ), jew- tep-£q), „ t£*>-gj, Tsv-eofiGu, „ rev-pv/Mxt. 
(pulvG), (puiv- q)Ctp-i(o 9 j, yav-b), (pav-sopac, „ yav-ovpai,. 

2. The First Aorist lengthens the short root of 
the 1 Future by changing s into si, and lengthen- 
ing the doubtful vowels; and instead of -era and 
-ciiaqv, adds -<x and -duy]v] as, 

Verb. I Fut. 1 Aor. Act. 1 Aor. Mid. 



jtlSPU), 


usp-euj, 


6-fieiV-a, 


B-^l8LV~6L(J,riV, 


tbIpoj, 


Tev-ew, 


e-TSiv-ct, 


8-TSlP-d<U7]P 9 


(palvb), 


qtap-eco, 


e-cpav-a, 


s-q)a.p-dt t UT]P. 



Rem. The Attics often change a into r\ ; as, sfpijpcc, i(p^pd/ut]p. 

3. The Perfect and Pluperfect Active, and all 
the Passive Voice, except the Present and Imper- 
fect, add the Tense-endings to the Second root; as, 

Verb. 2. R. Perf. Act. 1 Fut. Pass. 1 Aor. P. Perf. P. 
gtibLoo), OTiaq-, e-crnag-xa, anao-dr^oouai, £-a7i&g-6i]P, £-(jnaQ-[iou 9 
qxxiPOJ, (pap., ne-cpay-xu, (pap.Oijaouat, £-(pup.6i]P 9 ns^cpafx.^av. 

Exc. Verbs in -,«w form the Perfect and Pluperfect Active and 
the 1 Future, 1 Aorist Perfect, and Pluperfect Passive, from the 
first root by interposing rj before the Tense-endings ; as, 
Verb. 1 R. Perf. Act. 1 Fut. Pass. 1 Aor. Pass. 
viuw, pifi -, ve.viu.ij.xu, vefi-7]-6i\oo[iai, f Lpb^.t^6i]p, &c. 

So also 6&ll<j) and /ubpgj. 

Note. The tenses which interpose r\ are probably formed regularly from 
obsolete forms in -iui ; thus, NEME'SZ, vefirjao), veysfitjKa, &o. ; but while the 
above tenses thus formed remained, the others have given place to the liquid 
forms now in use. 

10 



110 OF CONTRACTED VERBS. § 98 

4. t Dissyllables in -eivo, -ivo : -wo 3 reject v before 
a consonant ; as, • 

Verb. 2 R. Perf. A. I Fut. P. 1 Aor. P. Perf. P. 

TSlVb), T(tV-) T^-Ttt-JCa, TU-drjdOfKXLy S-T(k-67]V, T£-Ttt-,a<U, &C. 

xgtvh), xoiv-) Kt-Ttoi-yta, ytQb-Qr^oouai) t-Y,ql-dr]v, xi-xoi-ficu, &c. 
Ouvu), Guv-, Te-0v-xu, rv-dJ[(j-OJuat,, £-ru-dr]r, rd-Ov-pai, &C, 

Exc. But sometimes xjelrw and nXvvw retain > . 



-&TJ, 


-dst, 


-<fy 


-rio^ 


-dou, z= 8. 


-a, 


-?9 


■4 


"<?> 


-co, 


-87], 


-££*, 


-£^, 


-£Ot, 


-£oi/, is: 8. 


-% 


-£t, 


-f 5 


-Ot, 


-Ol», 


-or], 


-0£t, 


" 6 y> 


-OOt, 


-oou, as 8. 


-CO, 


-or, 


-or, 


-oL 


-o£f. 



§ 98. OF CONTRACTED VERBS. 

Verbs in-dco, -£w and -oto contract the concurrent vowels 
in the Present and Imperfect in all the voices, according to the 
general rules of contraction, § 38. See paradigm, § 218. 

All the concurrences of vowels to be found in these verbs 
are the following; viz. 

1. Verbs in -dco, -dto, -as, -do. 
contracted -co, -a, -co, 

2. Verbs in -£co, -£co, -££, -£o, 
contracted -co, -£*>, -ov, -rj, -ft, -•§, -or, -o£>, 

3. Verbs in -ooo, -ouj, -oe, -6o, 

contracted -co, -ou, -oii, 

Ota. 1. Of the above concurrent vowels (No. 2) dissylla- 
bles in «co contract only es and set, : thus, nUs y nteuv y nkhrs &c. 
are usually contracted nidi, ttXeIv, ttIeIte, &c, but nXia,, nleofisv, 
&c. are never contr. Exc. d&a>, to bind, commonly contracts alL 

Obs. 2. Four verbs in -aco, contract «e into i], and «£* into 
5. These are £dw, neirdca), 8ap6nx^ and ^odo^cu; thus, 

Indie, tds*?, tdst, tdewv, etoceg, %'Cae, &c. Inf. £ds*i\ 
contr. E]fo ff, t^ro^, £^?, £?i?, ,, gjjy, &c. 

And so of the others. 

DORIC AND IONIC FORMS. 

Obs. 3. The Dorics, who in other cases use a for »/, in 
verbs make use of 17, without 1 subscript, instead of all con- 
tractions of olbv and ££* ; as, oQr\v for ooa^ ; xoo ( a7]j> for xoa/usTv. 
Also, «£ was usually contracted by them into 77; as, toK^xs for 

TO^dfTS. 

The Ionic dialect often converts a, in verbs in -aw, into 
§; as, 

6oiw, 6Qiofi6v y for oodw, ogdopev ; xgisxou for /odeTot*. 



§ 99 EXPLANATION OF THE FOLLOWING TABLE. Ill 

HOMERIC FORM. 

Obs. 4. The Epic writers, on account of the metre, often 
insert the kindred long or short vowel before the contracted 
vowel; as, 

oQtxeiv, contr. ogqv, Poet, dg&ccv; oocfcw, contr. ooco, Poet. 6q6oj, 
Participle fem. ffi&ovaa, contr. ^Swaa, Poet, r^cowaa, &c. 

This, from the frequency of its occurrence in Homer, is 
sometimes called the Homeric form. 

Note. By a little attention to practice and applying the rules (§ 38.) to 
the preceding contractions, a paradigm of contract verbs is wholly unne- 
cessary. 



§ 99. EXPLANATION OF THE FOLLOWING 
TABLE. 

1. The tense-root in the Subjunctive, (being the sameasin the indicative 
but without the augment) is to be prefixed to the " Terminations" in the op- 
tative, imperative, inhnitive, and participles. 

2. Whenever the accent ( ; ) falls on the termination it is marked in the 
following table in its proper place. When it does not fall on the termina- 
tion, its place will be the third syllable from the end of the word, if the last 
syllable be short, or the diphthong ai, which is considered short. But if the 
last syllable be long, the accent will be on the syllable next the last; as, 
rirvtya, rervQct), &.C. 

3. In the Perfect and Pluperfect passive, the characteristic x in all the 
moods is put with the termination, to show the changes it undergoes by the 
laws of euphony, when combined with the initial consonant of the termina- 
tion. In combining the root in these moods with the termination, Rules 
2, and 6, and 17 off 6, must be observed. See also § 101. 10. But if the ta- 
bles of terminations, § 92, and the method of forming the tenses, § 93, is 
thoroughly committed to memory and rendered familiar to the pupil by tho- 
rough drilling, it will hardly ever be necessary to take him into this table 
at all. The students under the author's care have not been required to 
commit the table of the verb for the last ten years. 

4. The numbers 1, 2, 3, &c, to be found in the following table, refer to 
the same numbers, § 101. 

N. B. By inspection of the table it will be seen that the terminations of 
the subjunctive mood are the same in all the tenses, and those of the opta- 
tive and imperative are nearly the same in all except in the 1 aorist; at- 
tention to this will greatly lessen the labour of committing the verb to me- 
mory. 



■ 



112 



I. TABLE OF THE VERB 



§ 100. 



I. TABLE OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. 







INDICATIVE. 






SUBJUNCTIVE. 




Tense- Root. Terminations. 




Root. 


Terminations. 






1. 2. 


3. 




1. 


2. 


3. 


Pres. 


S. 


Tvtrr -(»>, -«?, 


-£l, 


TVItT 


-ft). 


."?*» 


-ft 




D. 


-£T0V, 


-£T0V, 






-fJTOV, 


-TjTOV } 




P* 


-Ofj&v, -sre, 


-oval. 




-fttytgj/, 


-rjre, 


-0)0-4. 


Imp. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


I'TVKT -OV, ~£$, 

-ETOV, 
•OfiSV, -£T£, 


-£TTJV, 
-OV. 










Fut. 


S. 


TVXp -0), -CIS, 


-£C, 4 


rvip- 










D. 


-£T0V, 


'ETOV, 






Wanting 






P. 


-0fX£V, -£T£, 


-ovai. 










1 Aor. S. 


i-Tvip -a, -as, 


-€,* 


TVlp 


-ft), 


'»?> 


-?> 




D. 


-arovj 


-aTTJV. 






-Jjrov, 


-rirov, 




P. 


-afiev, -clt£j 


-av. 




-fttylfil/, 


-T]T£, 


-<oai. 


2 Aor 


S. 


e-TVTZ -01/, -££, 


-*$ 


TV7T 


-«, 


^?> 


"V, 




D. 


-£tov, 


-£TT)V, 






-177-0 »/, 


-TITOV, 




P. 


-0(Jl£V, -£T£, 


-OV. 




-G)[Jl£V, 


-tfrf, 


-(OOl. 


Perf. 


S. 


tc-tv<P -a, -as, 


-*> 


T£-TV(f> 


-ft), 


-???, 


-p» 




D. 


-CLTOV, 


-arov, 




I 


-rjrov, 


-777-0 1>, 




P. 


-apev, -are. 


-aot. 




-ft)jU£l>, 


-riTE, 


•ft)o-t. 


Plup. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


k-T£-rv<p -£IV ~£l$, 

-£IT0V, 
-Cl/JieVj -£IT£, 


-eirriv, 
-£taav. 











2 Perf. S. 


rt-rvir -a, 


-a?, 


-*> 


T£-TVTT -ft), 


^f, 


-n, 


D. 




-aroi/, 


-arov, 




-rjrov, 


-TITOV, 


P. 


-a/xev, 


-arc, 


-aat. 


-&)/>(«;, 


-VT£, 


-ftWt. 


2 Plup. S. 


£-T£-r(j7r -ecj/ 


-«J, 


-«, 








D. 




-£IT0V, 


-£(r77j/, 








P. 


-£iyL£V, 


•£IT£, 


-£iaav. 









§ 100. 



IN THE ACTIVE VOICE. 



113 



* TABLE OF THE ACTIVE VOICE, CONTINUED. 





OPTATIVE. 


IMPERATIVE. 


INF. 


PARTICIPLES. 


Terminations. 


Terminations. 


Term 


Terminations. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


2. 3. 




M. 


R 


N. 


-Oipt, 


-oi S ;i * 


-01, 


-£, -£>&>,. 




N. -wi/, 


-ovca, 


-ov 9 




-OITOV, 


-OITTJV, 


-£TOV, -£TO)V, 


-ElV, 3 


G. -OVTO$, 


-ovarjs, 


-OVTOSf 


-oifxev, 


-OlT£, 


-0(£V. 


-£T£, -£T(t)CaV. 2 




D. -ovre, 


-0VGT], 


-OVTl, &C. 


-Olfil, 


-01$, 


-01, 


— 




N. -aw, 


•ovaa, 


-ov, 




-OITOV, 


-OITTJV, 


Wanting. 


-etv. 


G. -OlTOf, 


-ovvrjg, 


-ovrog, 


-Ol[i£V, 


-oite, 


-ouv. 






D. -OVTly 


-ovarj, 


-OVTl, &C. 


•ai(xi, 


-at?, 


-ai, 


-OV, -&TO, 




N. -«, 


-aaa, 


-av, 




-airov, 


-aiTT]V, 


-aroj/, -arcav, 


-at. 


G. -avTog, 


-avrjg, 


-avTOS, 


-aipev, 


-aire, 


•ai£v. 


-a.T£ } -arwo-aj/. 




D. — aj/r*, 


-a<rr), 


-avn, &C. 


'Olfil, 


-ois, 


-»h 


-e, -sYcj, 




N. -wv, 


-ovaa, 


-6v 3 




-oirov, 


-OITTJV. 


-£TOV, -£T(t>V, 


-ElV, 


G. -ovTog, 


-ovarjg, 


-OVTOS, 


-oifiev, 


-OlT£, 


-Ol£V. 


-£T£, -£Tb)(TaV. 




D. -orrt, 


-ovarj, 


-OVTl, &C. 


-oipi, 


-otg, 


'Oh 


-£, -sra>, 




N. -co?, 


-vTa, 


-°s, 




-OITOV, 


-OITTJV, 


-frOV, -£TG)V, 


-ivai. 


G. -o'roj, 


•vias. 


~oro$, 


-Ot/tfJ/, 


-OlT£, 


-ouv. 


-£T£, -iroiaav. 




D. -drt, 


•via, 


-or i, &C. 











-otiit, 


-ois, 


'01, 


-*> 


-£T(i), 




N. 


-co?, 


-via, 


-*, 




-OITOV, 


-OITTJV, 


-£TOV, 


-£TO)V, 


~£vai. 


a 


-OTOS, 


-via$, 


-6ros, 


-Glfi£V, 


~OlT£, 


-OUV. 


~£T£, 


-eraaav. 




D. 


-OTl, 


'Via, 


-6ti. 











10* 



114 



II. TABLE OF THE VERB 



§ 100. 



II. TABLE OF THE MIDDLE VOICE. 



INDICATIVE. 

Tense- Root. Terminations, 

1. 2. 

Pres. S. rvnT ~o[xat, -77, 8 

D. -dfxsdov, -eodop, 
P. -o/>t£0a, -code, 


3. 

-erai, 

-eadov } 

•ovrai. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Root. Terminations 
1. 2. 

TV1TT '(OfXaty -77, 

-(ofxedov, -rjadoVj 
-(Ojxeda, -r}0"de, 


3. 

-rirai, 

-noOoVy 
-oovrai. 


Imp. S. 
D. 
P. 


l-Tvrr -OfxriVy 
-tifxsdov, 
-(J//£0a, 


-ou, 8 
-eoOov, 

-£ff0£, 


-ero, 
-eaQriv, 

'OVTO. 




Fut. S. 
D. 
P. 


rvtp 'Ofxaiy 
-opsdov, 
'6fxeda 9 


-01 

-ecrOov, 
-sode, 


-erai, 

-eoOov, 
-ovrai. 


TVlp- 

Wanting. 


1 Aor. S. 
D. 
P. 


-dfieOov, 
-djtxsfla, 


-6), 

-aodov, 
-aode, 


•aroy 

-aaOrjVj 

-avTO. 


TV\p -(t)fxai t -7J, 

"(OfiedoVy -riodovy 
-d3ju£0a, -rjode. 


-rjrai, 

-rjadovy 

-(xjvrai. 


2 Aor. S. 
D. 
P. 


h-TVir -Sfirjv, 
-dfieOov, 
-o'/x£0a, 


-ov, 8 

-ecdov, 

-£O0£, 


-ero, 
-eaOrjv, 

-OVTO. 


tvtc -cj/xniy -77, 

-(opedov, -riaQoVy 

-a5//£0a, -77O0£, 


-rjraty 

-rjcrBoVy 

•(ovrai* 


Perf. S. 
D. 
P. 


te-tv -/w/uou, -xpat, -rrraiy 10. 
-fifxc6ov : -<p8ov, -<p9ov, 
-fi[xe$a, -<pde, -jxixcvoi eiffiA2, 


re-TV 'Hfxevog <y, rjs, 

-fxfxevh) rjrovy 
'Hixivoi uijxevy riTCy 


nroty 
coot. 


Plup. S. 
D. 
P. 


i-TC-rv-ixjiriVy -xpo 
-HfxeQov, -cpd 
-HHeda, -<bd 


, -7TTA, 

ov t -tpdrjVy 

e, -{x/xevoi rjcav. 




P.P.F.S. 
D. 
P 


Te-TVip-Ofxai, -77, -erai, 
-6fxedoi/, -eo-001/, -eaOoVy 
-6fi£0a y -£o-0£, -evrat. 


re-rvxp- 

Wanting. 





§ 100. 



IN THE MIDDLE VOICE. 



115 



TABLE OF THE MIDDLE VOICE, CONTINUED. 



OPTATIVE. 

Terminations. 

1. 2. 3. 

-01//77J/, -oiOy 8 -qito, 
-oifisOovy -oiadov, -oiff9rjv } 
-oifxeda, -oiaOe, -oivto. 


IMPERATIVE. 

Terminations. 
2. 3. 

-OU, 8 -EcOci), 

-sodov, -eadcov, 
•£<T0£, -ia-dcoaav. 


INF. 

Term 

-eedai. 


PARTICIPLES. 

• 

Terminations. 

M. F. N. 

N. -OfXEVOg, -Yj y -ov, 

G. -ojjlevov, -»7?, -ox?, 

D. ^OfiEVtOj -77, -to. 










-oijisOov, 


•OiOj -OtTO, 

-oivdov, -olaQriv, 
-oiede, -oivto. 


Wanting. 


-E&Qai. 


N. '6[i£Vog, -77, 

G. -QIAEVOV, -77J, 
D. -OfiEVOHf -77, 


-07/, 
-015, 

»w. 


-aipeOa, 


-ato, -airo, 
-aio-Oov, -aio-drji), 
-aujOs) -aivro. 


•aiy -aa6o) t 
-cktOjv, -acrQuVy 

■aade, -daOcjcrav. 


~ao*Sai. 


N. -afiEvog, -77, 
G. -ajxivovy -iff, 
D. -cijjiEvai, -77, 


-017, 

-to. 


-oijjLtda, 


-019, -OITO, 

-otaQoVy -oiaQvtv, 
•oia-de, -oivto. 


-05), 8 -LaSai, 
-eaOov, -zcrdbiv, 
■eaOe, -ecrOcxiaav. 


-icBat. 


N. -oitsveSi -77, 

G. -OfAEVOV, -77>", 
D. -OLiEVtd, -77, 


-ov, 

-0?J, 
-to. 


-pfievos tXr\v, urjs, tin, 11 $ 
'fji/xcvco (.inrov, zlqrrjv, 
-fjjUvoi eirjnev, eirjrSj zXr,oav. 


-ipo, -0-9-d, 


-<p9ai. 


N. -[X/AZVOS, ->J, 

G. -fipivov, -rig, 

D. -fljAEVO), -??, 


-ov, 











-oifjieda, 


-oktQov, -oiadrjv, 
-uiaOe, 'Oivro. 


Wanting. 


•eaBai. 


N. -O/JLEVOg, -Y], 
G. -OffEVOV, ~>7?, 

D. -o/jiEvoi, -»;, 


-01/, 
-00, 
-to. 



116 



III. TABLE OF THE VERB 



§ 100. 



111. TABLE OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. 





INDICATIVE. 




SUBJUNCTIVE. 




Tense- Root. Terminations. 


Root. Terminations. 






1. 2. 


3. 


1. 2. 


3. 


Pres. S. 


rvrr -o/jtctL, -#, 


-srat, 


TVTTT -W/Uat, - -77, 


-rtraty 


D. 


-dfjieQovy -£g9ov 


-£ad0Vj 


-U)fj£&OV) -TJffdoVj 


-rja&ov, 


P. 


-fysOa, -eoQe, 


-ovrai. 


-W/i£0a, -J><70£, 


-toVTCli. 


Imp. S. 


h-TVTTT-OfXrtV, -ov, 


-£TO, 






D. 


-o'/^Ooi/, -eff&ov 


-iodvjv, 






P. 


-dfxcdaj -eo0£j 


-OVTO. 






1 Fut. S. 


rv^0»7O--o/irt», -r). 


-£TCtl, 


TVipOfa- 




D. 


-ofieQoV) -e&Bov : 


-Eadov, 


Wanting. 




P. 


-ojxEda, -ec&£) 


-OVTCtb, 






2 Fut S. 


Tvufict -o^iat, -J?r, 


-ETCH, 


TVirfiff" 




D. 


-ojxeOoVj -EO&Wj 


"EffdoV, 


Wanting. 




P. 


-OjLte^a, -e<jQ£, 


-ovrat. 






1 Aor. S. 


i-Tv<p8 nv, -77?, 


~*t, 


rv(pd -ft>, -J7?, 


~*h 


D. 


-nrov, 


-rirrtv, 


-T}TOV, 


-r}TOV t 


P. 


-9/^y, -r)T£, 


-T}<xav. 


-0t>/j£V, -yfT£j 


-(xMJt. 


2 Aor. S. 


i-Tvn -iyv, -?7?, 


*-1> 


TV7T -&>, ->K> 


-n, 


D. 


-T}TOV, 


•rirrjv, 


-77TOV, 


-r)TO»> 


P. 


-r\H£V, -T]T£ y 


-rimv. 


-Wpgl/, -TfTEy 


-wat. 


Perf. S. 


te-tv -/ifjiat, -xpaiy 


-7TTGLI, *&. 


T£-TV -fALtEVOS W, 3??, 


?« 


D. 


-HfiEQov, -<p9ov, 


-(pdi)Vy 


•f/[i£vcx> rjrovy 


YITOP, 


P. 


-HHc&dy -00£, 


-fji[x£yoi det.W. 


-MiSvoi c^fiEV, tJte, 


CJCTi. 


Plup. S. 


1-Tt-TV-imrjVy -IpO, 


-7T7V>, 






D. 


-jx/iEdov, -tftdov, 


-pOrji/, 






P. 


-ju/^e^a, -£0£, 


-fifxevoi r}oav. 






P.P.F.S. 


TE-rvxp-OLiai, ^77, 


-CTdl, 


T£-TV\p- 




D. 


-djieQov, -£(rdov f 


-£adov, 


Wanting. 




P 


,-6ju0a } -£<r0£, 


-ovrai. 







§ 100. 



IN THE PASSIVE VOICE. 



11? 



TABLE OP THE PASSIVE VOICE, CONTINUED. 



OPTATIVE. 

Terminations. 

1. 2. 3. 

olfxrjv, 'Oio, -oiTOf 
-oifiedov, -oioBov, -oiodrjv, 
-oi^sBa, -oktBe, -oivto 


IMPERATIVE. 

Terminations. 

2. 3. 

•ov, -ic6o>, 
-ccBov, -iffOuiv, 
-eads, -EcBcocav. 


INF. 

Term 
'zaBat. 


N. 

G. 
D. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Terminations. 

M. F. N. 

-6pevos, -r\, -ov, 
-ofxlvov, -17J, -ov, 
-oiiivo), -J7, -w. 










-OIHTJV) "010, -OITO, 

-oifisBov, "OiaBov, -otaBrjv, 
-oifxeOa, -oioBe, •otvro. 


Wanting. 


-eoBcli. 


N. 

a 

D. 


'dfievos, -rj, 

-OjXEVOV, -TJS, 
-OfXEVM, -T), 


"OVf 
-OV, 

-w. 


-oifATJV, "010, -OITO, 

-oifjteOov, -oioBov, -oicBqv, 
-oifieda, -oicBe, -oivto. 


Wanting. 


-Ea&ai. 


N. 

a 

D. 


-ofiEvog, -77, 

"OfiEVOV, -TJS, 
-OfiEVlp, -Tj, 


-ov, 

"OV, 


-zir\v, "EirjS, -eiv, 

-Ettjrov, -eit]T7]v, 
-Eiijusv, -EirjTE, -zit)vav. 


•rju, -7?ra>, 
-rjTOV, -ilrcutv, 
-r\TZ, -fyr&oav. 


-r\vai. 


N. 
G. 
D. 


-sis, -zicta, 
-evtos, -Eiorjs, 

-EVTl, -£lO"8» 


-iv, 

"EVTOS, 

•ivTi. 


-tir\v, -rim, -tin, 

•eirjrov, -eit)tt]v, 
-eirjfxtv, -sirjTE, -Eirjaav. 


-rjBi, -f\Toy, 

-TJTOV, -f\TOiV, 

-r)T£, -r)rcjaav» 


-r]vai. 


N. 
G. 
D. 


"eU, "Eitra, 
-evtos, "Eio-rjg, 
-ivTi, -e'ktti, 


-EV, 

-EVTOS, 

-EVTl. 


"Hfiivog z\r\v, efrjg, eUtj, H X 
"HfiEvG) e'lrjrov, clfjrriv, 
-[iHevoi ellrijxev, eitjte, eHrjaav. 


•<ft9ov, -ipBiov, 
•(pBe, -(ftBojo-av. 


-<pBai. 


N. 
G. 
D. 


-{XfXEVOS, -77, 

-fxfxivov, -ns, 

-fJfiEVG), -TJ, 


-OV, 
-OV, 










-oifinv, -oi*, -oiTo, 
•ot/i£0ov, -otaBov, -oio-Btjv, 
"otficda, -oktBe, -oivto. 


Wanting. 


-eaBat. 


N. 
G. 
D. 


-opsvos, -77, 
"OfiEVOV, -its, 
-OfiEVCx), -T}, 


'OV, 
-OV, 

-w. 



118 OBSERVATIONS ON THE THREE VOICES. § 101. 

§ 101. OBSERVATIONS ON THE THREE VOICES. 

The following Observations are designed to point out more 
particularly, certain changes in the terminations of these parts 
which frequently occur, and which, without explanation, might 
perplex and retard the student in his progress. Farther infor- 
mation respecting these and other changes will be found in 
the table of dialects which follows. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

OPTATIVE. 

1. In the optative mood, instead of the usual terminations 
-ot/^, -oig, -ot, &c. the Attic dialect has the following: 

Sing. Dual. Plur. 

-olrjv, -olqg, -otr] ; -oIjjtov, -on\rr]V ; .oirjfisv, -otyxs, -olyoav. 

This form is also used by Ionic and Doric writers. 
In the optative of the 1 aor. active, instead of the common 
termination -a^t, -aig, -cu, &c. the iEolic has as follows, 

Sing. Dual. Plur. 

-siocy -siag^-eLe ; •tslaxov, .sidxyv ; -sla/biev, -stare, -siav. 

The Attics, as well as the Ionians and Dorians, use this 
form in the 2d and 3d pers. sing, and in the 3d pers. plural. 

IMPERATIVE. 

2. In the 3d pers. plur. of the imperative, in Attic writers, 
the termination -6vtqjv is more common than -hwcrav ; thus, 
in the pres. tvtct6vxwv for rvTrriTCjaav. For other varieties, 
see Table of Dialects, § 102. This form is also met with in 
Doric writers. 

infinitive. 

3. The infinitive, in the ancient dialects, ended in -ipevcu. 
It was changed, in the Ionic, into -efxev ; and afterwards, the 
fi being rejected, was contracted by the Attics into -siv. 

IMPERFECT, 1 FUTURE, AND AORISTS. 

4. The iEolians and Dorians use a peculiar form of the 
imperfect and first and second aorists, which is made by adding 
the syllable -xop, to the usual form ofthe 2d pers. sing, and then 
inflecting them like the imperfect; thus, instead o£eTV7tT.ov,-eg, 
-£, &c. ; it makes hynzeon-ov, -eg, -e, &c. ; in the 1 aor. ^rv- 



I 



§ 101. OBSERVATIONS ON THE THREE VOICES. 119 



ipaax-or, -eg, -e, &c, and in the 2d aor, frvrtevx-or, .eg, -e, &c. 
Hence the same tenses in the middle voice, and the imperfect, 
in the passive, make eivmeax-o^isv^ -ou, -£to, 3d pi. -oi>io, &c. 

Obs. 1. But before the terminations -xov, -xeg, -xe, &c. in 
contracted verbs, diphthongs reject the subjunctive vowel, and 
in verbs in fio the long vowels are changed into their own 
short ones ; as, 2 sing, enoielgj irtoleoxov; hiding, hxlQeuxov, 
&c. 

Obs. 2. This form is used only in the indicative mood ; it 
usually rejects the augment, and is scarcely to be found, ex- 
cept in the singular number and 3d person plural. It is used 
only to express repeated action. 

The 1 Future in the dialects has the following varieties : 

(1.) The Attics often reject a from -daw, -saw, -/<rw, -6aw, con- 
tracting the remaining vowels when that can be done ; as, 
ikacroj, I will drive; Haw, contr. e'Aco ; eMaeig, ehksig, contr. 
tlag, &c. So xaloo for xateau), / will coil; oIxtiw for olxilaa), 
I will pity ; in the middle voice duovpat, for duocroficu. 

(2.) Attic Futures in -*w are inflected like Contract Verbs in 
-s'w (§ 98. 2. or § 222.), thus, -ig), -iug y -isi; -lutov 

(3.) 2 is sometimes elided from the 1st future of pure verbs, 
especially among the poets, even when -crw is preceded by a 
long vowel or diphthong ; as, pres. %ico, 1st fut. /etfaw, or 
%ev(x). 

(4.) For -aw, the Doric termination is -?w; as, yela$co for 
yeXauo). 

(5.) Verbs in -aw, -^w, have the first future Ionic in -ecu un- 
contracted ; (see § 102.) as, veuiw for ve/titi; /uevdw for /iieva. 

(6.) Verbs in -ow, in Homer, commonly insert a; as, oqvoj 
for ogu, I will excite; sometimes also verbs in -Aw; as, slaw 
from sha ; xilau) from xilXcx). 

(7.) The Attic and Ionic termination, particularly of liquid 
verbs, is often -->]o-w; as, Salli'iaw for Gala, I will cast ;* x at Q*l" 
cro) for #aocb, / will rejoice. 

In mutes, tuttttjo-w for Tvipco, I will strike. 

PERFECT INDICATIVE. 

5. Some verbs suffer a syncope in the perfect; thus, 
xata'w, I call ; xatajaw, xsxal-qxa, xixlrjxa. 

In like manner, dedi/urjxoc^ ded/urjxa. 

xexa[Jirjxa, xixfiqxa, &c. 



120 OBSERVATIONS ON THE THREE VOICES. § 101. 

Some perfects in -??*«, from verbs in cico, strikeout a before 
a, and (except in the participles) change tj into a ; thus, 

from 66.(0, 6e6r]xa, 6 66 ace. 

from jhko) y riiXrjxa 9 Tt'zAaa, &c. 

Of the vowels thus brought together, the latter is sometimes 
rejected ; as, 

6s6rixauev, GeGaa^ev^ by syncope 6i6aiLtsv. 

TeTlrpiEvcu, jsilderat, by syncope Tt ? rAa*/a*. 

In other verbs the Attics sometimes change s into o ; thus, 

TQenco, I turn ; TO£i//io, rixQocpa. 

A similar change has taken place in the Iono-Doric Ae'Ao^«, 
from (^j/w), k&yx<o {^uyxuvM), analogous to It\6w, l&fx6(x>, lap- 
6&voj. Thus also nenoa/s is found for nknaays. 

PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE, &C. 

6. The subjunctive and optative of the perfect are some- 
times made by a periphrasis of the perf. participle and the 
verb elfii, I am; thus, subj. Tervyug co, i\g, ?}, TSTvcpore 7\iov 9 
&c; opt. TSTvcp&g eYrjv, e%t§e, Bl'rj. And sometimes the indica- 
tive; as, TBTvqxhg eoopou, I shall have struck. 

PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

7. The participles sometimes change y into «, and some- 
times not. 

In either case, by a syncope of the former vowel, t](ag and 
acog are changed into -co;, which remains also in the neuter; 
and the feminine, which otherwise ends in via, becomes cotJw, 
and in the oblique cases of the masculine and neuter w is re- 
tained ; thus, 

Uncontracted. Contracted. 

6e6r]xtf;, 6e6a-(ag 9 -via, -6g y t>£#-cog, -Sera, -cog, G. -corog. 

7e0vr]Xibg, Tf-flvrj-ibg, -w«, -og, Tedv-tig, -cocra, -cog, „ -corog. 

lor^xtbg, tor^-cog, -via, -6g, \ 

or, \ lor-cog, -cocra, -cog, „ -corog, 

£or«xibg, £o"T«-cog, -i/?a, -6g, ) 

The Ionics and Attics insert e before -cog ; thus, £ors-cog, 
-ccocra, -ecog, G. -corog. But in the poets the ordinary termina- 
tions frequently remain after the contraction ; as, 4or£-cbg,-ura, 
•6g, G. huxe -orog, &c. 

The perfects in which these changes most frequently occur 



101. OBSERVATIONS ON THE THREE VOICES. 121 

are TMijxa, ladvrjxa, fieSrjxa, zoirpa ; and in these the regular 
form is more common in the singular, and the contracted form 
in the dual and plural. 

MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 

2d PERSON SINGULAR. 

8. The 2d pers. singular present indicative originally ended 
in .evac In the Ionic dialect, the a being rejected, it became 
-eat, by diaeresis -sou, and was afterwards contracted into 13 ; 
(§ 38. R. III.) sometimes by the Attics into -si. In the same 
manner, in other moods and tenses. In the subj. -rivai be- 
came -7/ou, and then -77. In the imp, the indie, imperf. and 2 Aor. 
-scro became -so, eontr. -ou; and in the 1 aor. mid. -aero became 
-ao, contr. -w. In like manner, in the 2d sing, of the optative, 
okjo became ow, and, being incapable of farther change by 
contraction, remains in this form. 

IMPERATIVE, 3d PLURAL. 

9. In the third pers. plur. of the imperative, the Ionic, 
Doric, and especially the Attic writes, use the termination -cov 
instead of -coaav ; thus, rvmeoOwv for TvnT&odwaav. See Ta- 
ble of Dialects, § 102. 

PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT PASSIVE. 

10. The terminations of the perfect and pluperfect passive, 
cannot be correctly represented in any paradigm of a mute 
verb, because the termination, combining with the final mute 
of the root, undergoes various changes, according to the laws 
of Euphony, (§ G.) which causes an apparent, but not a real 
variety in the terminations of these tenses. For the termina- 
tions alone, see § 92. III. 

(1.) The terminations preceded by a 7r-mute, as in the para- 
digm, according to the laws which regulate the combination 
of consonants, combine with it as there exhibited ; viz. 

S. T&TVjXIJlUl) § 6. TSTVlpOU^ § 6. 6. TixVUTOLl^ 

D. TETviAuedov, do. Teivcpdov, § 6. 2. & 17. reivcpOov, 

P. TexvufieOa, do. jirvcpOe, do. TBjv^Ljxivoi eiat, 

(2.) Preceded by a x-mute, they combine as follows: 

XiXeyficu, Ule$ai, § 6. 7. XiXsxrai, § 6. 2. 

XeteyfisQov, X&XezOov, § 6. 7. & 17. XeXe%dov, 
XeXiyiiedet) XiXe/Qs, do. XeXey/uivoi elol. 

11 



122 OBSERVATIONS ON THE THREE VOICES. § 101 

(3.) A r-mute before a consonant in the passive voice, is 
changed into v, and combines with the terminations of the 
perfect and pluperfect without change, except where the ter- 
mination begins with cr, in which case one u must be dropped. 
(§ 6. 17. Qbs. 9.) 

(4.) In the first person, the Attics change the characteris- 
tic v before (i into o ; as, neqxxufiuu, Tzecp&a/ueOov, necpacr^eda ; 
for Titcpauuui, TTecpduuedov, necpdn^^ieda. 

SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE OF PERF. PASS. 

11. If the termination in the perf. and pluperf. passive is 
preceded by a vowel, the circumlocution in the 3d pers. plur. 
and in the subjunctive and optative moods, as exhibited in the 
paradigm, becomes unnecessary; thus, in the 3d pers. plur. of 
the indicative, instead of /ieq)ih]uirov slal, necplfaiviai is used. 
But 

Obs. 3. In the Subjunctive, the vowel preceding the termi- 
nation is dropped, and the terminations of the present subj. 
annexed; thus, perf. neapiXri^at^ subj. neyilibuai, -rj, -^ra^ 
&c. ; perf. xexgi/uui ; subj. xsxg-w/uai, -rj -r^ai. 

Exc. But verbs in -oof frequently retain w, as a mood- vowel, 
through all the numbers and persons ; as, dedi]l(b^ai y -a>, -mat, 
&c. 

Obs. 4. The Optative adds the terminations -/uyv, -o, (viz. 
from (to,) -to, to the characteristic of the tense, with i inter- 
posed after «, and subscribed with ?y or w ; thus, 

xexQl-fiqp, xixoi-o, xixgi-TO, &c. 

XeXv-(U7]V) lilv-o, Ae'Au-ro, &c. 

ixT(x[-/U7]v, exrui-o, Ixrai-io. 

7Tf(fAlri- i ur]v, 7i8cpiXr^-o y nfcpllrj-TO, 

d6d?jlQj- t U7]v 9 dedi?[X(D-o 9 dedrficp-TO. 

Note. Both in the subjunctive and optative, however, these forms are but 
seldom used, the circumlocution being generally preferred. 

IONIC AND DORIC FORMS. 

12. In thelonic and Doric dialects, v before -rat and -to, in 
terminations of these tenses in the 3d pers. plur. is changed 
into «, so that -vtuh becomes -«Tai, and -vxo, -olto ; thus, telw- . 
T«t becomes XeXdatai] lilvvro, XeXvuzo, &c. 

Obs. 5. A ^r-mute or a *-mute before -onai and -axo, for -vrai 
and -vto, is changed into its own aspirate; as, TSTvy-aiou,, ta- 
i^-otTca, for lexvTt-VTai, leliy-VTou, &c. 



§ 102. DIALECTS OF VERBS IN to AND (U. 123 

Obs. 6. As the circumlocution Tervfifisvoi elui is used to 
avoid the cacophony of the regular termination, lizv^vim^ 
this being removed by the change of v into «, the circumlocu- 
tion in the indicative, of all such verbs, becomes unnecessary. 
Thus, TSTv^fxivot elvl, is changed into Teivcpazai; keleypivw 
el a I, into heU/aiai, &c. 

Obs. 7. If a (changsd from a r-mute, § 94. R. 2,) precede 
the termination, it is changed into d or 6 before -ajai and 
-«to; thus, axsvd'toj, perf. eaxevaa/uou; 3 pers. pi. Ionic iaxsv- 
ddaroci ; Tthjdw, perf. pass. Tcenl^a^ai, 3 pers. pi. nenelyfiajav 
for n ercl-qu^Evoi slot. 

Obs* 8. In pure verbs, rj or sv before - 4 uat is usually changed 
into s before the Ionic -aiai and -«to ; thus, nscpll-yvrav and 
-j^tq are usually changed into nsyik-haxai and - socio.* In like 
manner, « before -«T«t and -«to is changed into s to avoid the 
auplication of the «; thus, avanejavjai^ from d*>a7t£Td:a^ becomes 
da'«7T£T£«roa. 

Obs. 9. In like manner, v before the termination -to, seldom 
before -t«*, in the indicative and optative of the other tenses, 
but never in the subjunctive, is changed into « ; thus, for Tin- 
toivto we have ivnjolaxo ; for yivoifio, yevolaro, &c. So also 
in verbs in u.i ; as, udearai, for Tldeviai ; tuTsaxai for loTavxav. 
In these forms a and o before v are usually changed into e ; 
36, iSovliaio for iSovlovro, &c. 



§ 102. DIALECTS OF VERBS IN gj and pi. 

A principal difficulty in learning Greek, arises from the va- 
riety of terminations in verbs, according to the different dia- 
lects. These can hardly be reduced to any general principles; 
but a pretty clear idea of them may be formed from the follow- 
ing table. It must be observed, however, that many of the 
same terminations occur in all the dialects, although that one 
only is mentioned in which they are most usual. Besides the 
final syllables, of which this table chiefly consists, Ihe lonians 
used to insert a vowel before the last syllable, which the poets 
often changed into a diphthong • as, tuttco, I. tutuo*, P. jvireto). 
So cpvyeXVy I. cpvy-betv ; fio-ojoi, I. fio-ocoat, ; 6g-dg, I. OQ-dqg. 
But as this does not affect the inflexion of the final syllable, it 
is not noticed in the table. § 98. Obs. 4. 

These moods and tenses of the middle and passive voices, 
which agree in termination with the active, and are not here 



124 DIALECTS OF VERBS IN (*> AM) Ul. § 102. 

specified, are subject to similar changes in me different dia- 
lects with those having the same terminations in the active 
voice. The same is true respecting the terminations of verbs 
in -in,; so that this table is general, applying to the termina- 
tions here specified, whether they belong to verbs in «w or -/**. 
The dual is omitted in the table, as it but seldom occurs. For 
other changes by dialect, see § 101 throughout. 



A Table exhibiting the most usual Dialects of the terminations 
of Greek Verbs. 

I. ACTIVE VOICE. 

FINITE MOODS. 

SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. -Tj[ii y M.-s/u/uv; D. -et^tand (if from-W)-a,«t; 

as, TlO-etjjii for -rtfju ; ?ot-«/u for »crf- 

-eiv, I. -£a, D. k.-rj ; as, BTes/r^.i] for -sir. 

.oT/lu, A. -oItjp, D. -(D7]r ; as, cpd-olrjv for -Olfii. 

-0)^*, A. -<or]v ; as, tcu-cLtjv for -uiu. 

-oil]?, A. -torjv ; as, did.(Lr}v for did-olrjv. 

And so on through all the persons. 

2 Pers. -etg, D. -eg, JE. -i?s; as, fydly-eg for -eig. 

-a£, -*/£, A. -ao0a,-7]o6a; as, ecp-rjoQa for -r 5 ; o^J- 

ctoda, contr. ol'odu for oldocg. 
-at?, iE. A. -£tag ; as, Tvift-eiag, for -at£. 

-a?, A. D. -7j>£ ; as, (jpotr-'jjg, for -ug. 

3 Pers -f* / preS ' " D * "*' *' "^ ; aS ' T * 7rr "? for ***' 

' ( plnp. A. -^, I. -ee ; as, zTETvq) rj for -£t. 

-at, iE. A. -£t£ ; as, Tvip.sie for -at. 

-^, I. -^cr^; as, Timx-rpri for -ij. 

-a, -«, D. -*}, -5 ; as, dg-rj for-«. 

-at, D. -rt ; as, Tidy-TV for -at. 

PLURAL. 

1 Pers. -[lev, D. -fisg ; as, rimo-peg for -^^ ; tu^/ -ou- 

/t/eg or .evpeg for -o/^ej/ ; cpiX-evpeg for 
-ov/uev ; drjl-ov/ueg for .ov[isv. 
-TjfiBv, A. -/w^ ; as, TvcpOsi-pev for TvcpOtl-wsp 






§ 102. DIALECTS OF VERBS IN CO AND fit. 125 

2 Pers. -vj£) A. -re ; as, Jvcpd&i-je for rvqidel-rjTe. 

3 Pcrs. .61, D. -^rt; as, cot^^-a^Ti for -acn: e/-cx)vTb 

for .wen; Aiy-ovTt for ta'^-oiw, tsX-- 

Bvvii for -o€»(7i ; epiX-ovvTi for -ovai ; t/#- 

£^Tt or -7/yrt for -£iat ; dld-uvri, for -ova*^ 
B. into y ; as, jfrvcp-av for -«at. 
-Sort, -vat, -eToi) I. -iacrt,, -vixen, -audi ; as, deinp-vao* 

for -vert; Ti6-eucri for -elui, 
-overt, I. -sucrt ; -6a en, D. -eucrt ; as, did-oaa" 

for -overt ; cpile-oioi for -ovul. 
-ov, B. .oaav ; as, ia/d^-oaav for -oj>. 

.Boar, -rjvav, -ocrav, -cocroc^, P. -ez>, -a*>, -o^, -co^ ; as, 

tIO-sv for -eaav ; £$-oj> for -ouav ; tyy- 

-co^ for .ojcra^. 
-eioav, A. I. -soar ; as, ellr[Cp-6oav for -sioav. 

• -rjxaert, -dxaert, JE. A. -aat; as, leOv-acri for -r/xaat. 
-aiev. JE. A* -£*a^ ; as, tvip-eiav for .aiev. 

1. 2. 3. 3. 3. 

-dTCoaocy, -hcoaav, -g/rwa«y, -ozcooai^, -ovrcoeray, A, 
into 

1. 2. 3. 

-d*>TG)*>, -oVto>j>, -ovvtmv ; as, Tvip-dcvruv 

for -drwa«^ ; Ae^-o^rco^ for -ircxxiav ; 

Xv7C.ovpt(x)v for -Eljwoav. 

-cW, contr. 'toy, > ^ T , _ ~ 

, , _ ' > JJ. 1. -strf ; as, ^r«fr-£v^ tor -cor. 

-£oj>, contr. -ovj>, ^ 



'i/ 1 



INFINITIVE. 

-sir, -svett,, I. .jfiev, A. D. -e'^^at, -£v>, M. -6P 9 -r\v ; 

as, llO-itisvav for -£*? ; aftely.ev for 

-etz>; ilO-euev and -inevav for -evai. 
-at, L. D. -eu&vai', as, ivip-BjJievca for -at. 

-$*>, A. D. -(Jttterai, -ijv, M. -r/v, -?/£, .an , as, 

fj?? for £?*. '(§ 98. O65. 2.) 
-ov>, A. D. -oubvgu, E.-£v>,-coj/, M. -olg, -oTv ; 

as, ^y-coj/ for .ov>. 

PARTICIPLES. 

-ovcra, D. -oiaa, -suaa ; as, £aT-£wa for £*/t- 

oDaa. 
-a$, -«aa, -a^, D. -atg, -ataa, -aty ; as, Qlxp-aig for 

-«S, &c 
11* 



126 



DIALECTS OF VERBS IN CO AND fit. 



$ 102.; 



-7/x-(bg, ) -via, -6c, A. -ok, -wcra, -wc ; as, ear-(bc for! 
-ax-djc, J -*7*wc, § 101. 7. I. -ecog. 

-(be, JE. -w^; as, TSTvcp-cov, G.-o*>toc, for-wc, j 

-oroc. 



II. MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 

FINITE MOODS. 



1 Pers. 



2 Pers. 



1 Pers. 
3 Pers. 



-ovfiai, 

-ft 



SINGULAR. 

1 f. D. -ov/uai; as, tvip-ovficti for .Ofiai. 

D # -ev[iai ; as, /uaO-ev/Liat, for ovficu. 

D. -/u«y ; as, eTVTtTo-ftav for -firjv. 

A. -ft, I. iridic, -eat, subj. -?yat ; as, 
fiov'k-e.i for -7], 
-ou, I. -eo, D. -eu ; as, /utix-ev for -ou. 

-w, I. -oco ; as, ikva-ao for -&>. 

PLURAL. 

-£0a, D. -evda ; as, Ixoii-ecjOu. for -£0a. 

-JTat, -^*>o* fiai, I. -aT«t or -iaiav ; as, xiajui for 
xeivjai; elQv.ajctv^oY -vrai ; IsXex-ccTac 
for -y/uevoi slat, (§ 101. 12.) 

-^to, -^*>o* ^(Ta^, I. -aro or -earo ; as, jTJBvOoL-cxto for 
-olvto ; iyev-iajo (or -ovto ; £or(£A-aTO 
for -/uevov r\oav, (§ 101. 12.) 

-rjoav, M. -ev ; as, dvvijQeT.cv for -Tjaav ; IbjvcpO- 

bv for .r ( oav. 

.coaav, A. I. D« -0)^ ; as, IeZ&gO-cov for -coaotv. 

INFINITIVE, 
-ipat, D. -TJ^yat, iE. -riuev; as, Xei(fd-r\^B> 

for -r\vcu. 

PARTICirLES. 

.ovuevog, D. iE. .ev/usvog ; as, cpil.ev/Lievog for -otf 



§ 103 SECOND CONJUGATION. 127 

§ 103. SECOND CONJUGATION. 

3. Verbs of the second conjugation end in ^., 
and are formed from pure verbs of the first, as 
follows : 

1. -g is changed into -fit, and the short vowel 
before it is changed into its own long, or the 

1 doubtful vowel lengthened ; thus, 

From afteco is formed o6t]iu, I extinguish, 
yvow „ yv&fu, I know. 

cpd(j) „ <pyul, I say. 

xlvco „ xXv/lu, I hear. 

2. Regular verbs in -cb, -aj, -do, reduplicate the 
initial consonant with t in the present and im- 
perfect; thus, 

From deco is formed dt.dqfu, T bind. 
did) Tl-Oqut. I place. 

doa dtdw/u, I give. 

But nte(x> makes nlfinlrj^ I fill. (§ 6. 19.) 

3. Verbs beginning with a vowel, prefix t, 
which is called the improper reduplication ; thus, 

From ew is formed X-rnii. I go. 
e(o l-rtfu^ I send. 

Obs. 1. Also verbs beginning with or or m prefix t> with 
the aspirate ; thus, 

From o-t&m is formed P-ot^im. 
m&w ,, 2-nxrjfu. 

4. The reduplication is not used in verbs in 
Ufa, nor in those whose radical primitive has 

more than two syllables; thus, 

From xlfico comes xlvfu, I hear. 
Icr&o) „ 1'crijfu, I know, 
opico „ bvtjfu, I assert. 

Likewise some other verbs ; as, 

cpdoj WWK I &&$ &c. (No. 1.) 

Obs. 2. Some verbs which begin with a vowel repeat tho 



128 OF THE ROOT AND AUGMENT. § 104 

first syllable, after the manner of the Attic reduplication, § 90 
6 ; thus, &lrjui and (UcU^u ; u-xW 1 an d <^;w*. 

Obs. 3. Some pure verbs add wv to the. root before -^, and 
some mute and liquid verbs add vv in order to pass into -pi ; 
as, 

axed&u), R. crxeda- oxed&-vvv-[ii. 

delxcOy deix- dsly.-vv-/ui. 

cigM, ag- "AP. NY-MI, ao-vy-pat, 

5. Verbs in fit have only three tenses of that 
form ; viz. Present, Imperfect, and 2 Aorist. 
The other tenses are taken from the primitive 
in o, and are of the first conjugation, § 110. 
, Verbs in .-v[u want the second aorist, and also 
the subjunctive and optative. When those 
moods are needed, they are borrowed from forms 
in -ro. 

Obs. 4. Several verbs form only the 2d aor. according to 
this conjugation, § 85. Obs. 1.; in such cases verbs in -t5© 
have the 2d aor. in -vp ; as, 



ftalpco from 


fiaw, 


Root ^«- 


2d aor. tSrjv, 


yiyvdxjxw „ 


yvbbi, 


„ yvo- 
„ dv- 


„ eyvwr, 
„ edvv. 






Obs. 5. Many verbs of this conjugation are deponent, hav- 
ing only the passive form, while their signification is active or 
neuter; such are dvpapai, I can; xeTpai, I lie; dltypcu, 1 
seek; olopui, I think. 



§ 104. OF THE ROOT AND AUGMENT. 

1. The Root of verbs in .pi has but one form, and is the 
same with the first root of the verb from which it is derived ; 
thus, 2ari]ui from ar^w, R. or«- ; tlOtjui from Oioj, R. 0s- 9 &c. 

2. In Verbs that reduplicate, (§ 103. 2.) the reduplication is ! 
prefixed to the root in the present and imperfect only. 

3. The imperfect and 2d aorist are augmented in the same 
manner as in verbs of the first conjugation. 









§ 105. OF THE TERMINATION. 129 

§ 105. OF THE TERMINATION or FINAL 
LETTERS. 

1. In the first conjugation the terminations consist of two 
parts, the mood- vowels and final letters, §91.2. In the se- 
cond the mood-vowels are wanting and their place supplied by 
the last letter of the root, which sufficiently distinguishes the 
moods by the changes which it undergoes in combining with 
the final letters. 

2. The Final letters in all verbs belonging to this conjugation 
are the same. They are divided into two classes, Primary and 
Secondary. The Primary belong to the present indicative 
only. The Secondary to the indicative of the imperfect and 

r 2 aorist, and to the optative in all the tenses. They are join- 
ed immediately to the root, and so far as they can be separated 
from it, are as follows : 

I. ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



PRIMARY TENSES. 
Sing. -Ill, .g, -or*, 

Dual. — , -TOJ>, -TOP, 

Plur, 



-per, 



VTOl. 



Sing. 

j Dual. 

Plur. 



IMPERATIVE. 



-TO?, 
-TOW, 

.rcooav. 



SECONDARY TENSES, 
-ft •$> > 



-[ISV, 



-T6, 



-aav. 



INFINITIVE. 



.vai. 
PARTICIPLES. 
N. -vjg, -vraa, -vr, G. -viog, &c 



II. MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICES. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



PRIMARY TENSES. 
Sin^. -flat, -octi, -TOa, 
Dual, -fiedov, -odor, -odov, 
Plur. -{LieOa, -crds, .vxav. 



I Sing. 
Dual. 
Plur. 



IMPERATIVE. 



-(70, 

-odov, 

-ode. 



'0-6(0, 

.o6(DV, 

-oOojoocv, 



SECONDARY TENSES. 
-jUT]V, -0TO, -TO, 

-fiadov, -uQov, -aOi]v. 
-fieda, -ade, -vw. 

INFINITIVE. 

-udav. 
PARTICIPLES. 

N. -fievog, -ii&vr\, -fisrot 



130 



FORMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES. 



§ 106. 



§ 106. FORMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES 
IN THE ACTIVE VOICE. 

In the present and imperfect through all the 
moods, prefix the Reduplication in verbs that 
reduplicate, and then — 

1. For the Indicative. 

Rule. Change the short vowel of the root into 
its own long* in the singular of the present and 
imperfect, and in all the numbers of the 2 Aorist, 
and then add the final letters. § 105. 2. ; thus. 





PRESENT. 


IMPERF. 


2d AOR. 




s. 


2<jTj]-fjit 9 -g, . -cr*, 


tcrry-V, -£, — , 


ISGZTJ-V, -£, 


""~~9 


D. 


2<Jia , -TO*', -TOP, 


Icria — , -Tov^xrjv , 


icrirj — , -zoy, 


-*w? 


P. 


2aT<x-[iev 9 -ts, -01. 


2Gxa-{xsv 9 -T£, -aav. 


8(Tl71-lLtSl>,-TE, 


-aav. 



Exc. 1. In the 2 aorist, t[0t][u, dldwfit,, and fy^ 5 have the long 
vowel in the singular only. 

2. For the Subjunctive. 

Rule. Change the final vowel of the root into 
the subjunctive terminations, -o, -^5, -<p, &c. § 92. 
I. ; thus, 

2(jtt]ilu 9 R. or«- Suhj. Pres. tor-o>, -rjg, -77; -t]tov 9 -tjtov, &c. 
2 Aor. or-w, -rjg, -tj; -tjtov, -tjtov, &c. 
Exc. 2. But verbs in -u>^ retain w through all the persons 
and numbers; as, 

didwfii, from doco, R. do, Subj. Pres. did-G, -co?, -<2> ; -&tov, &c. 

2 Aor. d-ti 9 -Qjg 7 -g> ; -(dtov, &c. 

3. For the Optative. 
Rule. Change the final vowel of the root into 
its own diphthong, and add the secondary final 
letters with yi prefixed ; thus, 

Pres. 



Imp. 



ioictl-rjv, -r/g, -rj 9 &c. TiOel-rjv, -rjg, -r\, &c. didol-rjv, &c. 



2 Aor. crial-rjv, -rig, -rj, &c. Oel-rjV, -r\g 9 -r/, &c. dot-rjv, &C. 



♦ See & 96. N. B. 



§ 107. FORMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES. 131 

4. For the Imperative. 

Rule. In the Present Tense, add the 
final letters to the root ; but in the 2 Aor. change 
the short vowel into its own loyg; thus, 

Pres. & Imp. tcrra-di, -tco, -top, -twp 9 -ts, -Tcoaap. 
2 Aor. viri-di, -tw, -top, &c. 

Exc. 3. In the 2 Aorist, t16i][*i, didcofu, and lrj[M, retain the 
short vowel and add -g instead of -0i in the 2 pers. singular; 
as, Oi-g, -tw, -top, -tcjp, &c. ; db-g, -tw, -top, -twp, &c. So also 
anr\uv, q>grifu 9 and (JXWh i fl the Pres. and Imp. have onhg, 
(posg, a/hg. 

5. For the Infinitive. 

Rule. In the Present Tense, add the 
final letters to the root, and in the 2 Aorist change 
the short vowel into its own long; thus, 

Pres. and Imperf. lo~v&-vat, 2. Aor. uvr\-vav. 

Exc. 4. In the 2 Aorist xiOrmi and ty/u, change the short 
vowel of the root into £*, and dtdiapu, into ov ; as, 

Osl-vav, el-pai, dov-pai. 

6. For the Participles. 

Rule^ Add the final letters to the root, and 
then combine by the rules of Euphony, § 6. 18. ; 
thus, 

luTa-PTg, -PTcra, -p, combined lo~T-ag, -aaa, -av. 
TiOc-PTg, -PTOa, -p, ,, Tid-elg, -elaa, -bp 

didb-PTg, -PTcra, -p, ,, did-ovg, -ovaa, -op, 

dsLXPv-PTg, -PTO~a, -p, ,, deixp.vg, -vera, -vp. 



§ 107. FORMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES IN 
THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE. 

Prefix the reduplication in the present and 
I imperfect in verbs that reduplicate, as in the ac- 
tive voice; and then, in all the tenses, — 



132 FORMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES, § 107. 

1. For the Indicative, Imperative, Infinitive, and 
Participles. 
Rule. Annex the final letters to the root, 
(§ 105. 2, 3.) ; as^ , 

Indicative, ?oTa-//a£, -oat, -Tea, &c. Imp. loT&-[ir]v, -ao, -to, &c. 

Imperative, Vara-vo, -odu, -oQov, aQmv, &c. 

Infinitive, tara-adou,. 

Participles, loia-pevog, -/usvi], /uevov. 

2. For the Subjunctive. 

Rule. Change the last letter of the root into # 
the subjunctive terminations, -Quat, -<$?, -ntcu, &c 
§ 92. II. ; as, 

2vTi][u, 9 R. oza- Subj. Pr. & Imp. loT-a^ai, -jj, -rjTca, &c 
2 Aor. or-co^aat, -??, -rJTca, &c. 

l&rc. Verbs in -a> ( tu retain w through all the numbers and 
persons, as in the active ; as, 

dldoj/iu, R. do- Subj. Pr. & Imp. did-wfiav, -w, -wtc^, &c. 
2 Aor. d-(b[iat t -(5, -wrca, &c. 

3. /fyr ?Ae Optative. 

Rule. Change the last letter of the root into 
its own diphthong, and add the secondary final 
letters ; as, 

loir}[ii, R. crra- Opt. Pr. & Imp. laTal-fii]v, -ao, -to, &c. 
2 Aor. o-Tal-inqv^ -go, -to, &C. 

O&s. o is usually rejected in the 2dpers. singular ; making, 

lCTT0d-Ul]i>, -0, -TO, &C. CTT(xl- t U?]V, -O, -TO, &C. § 109. 8. 

N. B. As the root of verbs in ~fu ends in «, e, o, or v, these 
vowels combining with the final letters cause the appearance 
of four different forms of termination, and for this reason four 
paradigms have usually been given, though there is in fact 
only one. This can tend only to perplex and obscure the sub- 
ject, and to impose unnecessary labour on the learner. If the 
changes which affect the root are carefully studied according 
to the preceding rules, § 106, 107, this conjugation will be 
found even more simple than the first. The following table 
will show that in whatever vowel the root end, still there is but 
one form of inflection. 



§ 108. 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN -^tt*. 



133 



§ 108. PARADIGM OF VERBS IN -3//. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD, § 106. 1. 

Sing. Dual. Plur. 



mm 

dsixvv 


> "/" 


&, 


-Or*, 


forra 

dido 
delxvv 


y -TOJ>, -TO^, 


/ ,. J oloovcn, 
v ' v, oblnvvai* 








SUBJUNCTIVE, § 106. 2. 


l(JT 

Tl6 


J-G, 


"!?>> 


-5> 


-r\iov, -v\iov t 


-G^sy, -?jr£, -tow. 


did 


-G, 


-©£, 


-<?, 


-(hlOV, 'U)TOV, 


-WjLiev, -aire, -Ga*, 








OPTATIVE, § 106. 3. 


laral 


) 










Tidel 
dtdoL 


\-nv 


, -?= 


-% 


-t]TOV, -T[Tr]V, 


-7i[i8v 9 ~ -tjts^ .rjcrav. 








IMPERATIVE, § 106. 4. 


2 ui a 


-0*,3 


N 






• 


lids 

dido 


-ft, 4 


V .TO), 


-TOV, -TWV, 


-re, -rcoaaVtS 


delxvv 


-#*, 


J 








INFINITIVE, 


§ 106. 5. PARTICIPLES, § 106. 6. 




fare* 






£ur-ag, -aaa, -dr*'. 




rids, 
dido 




-J>a£, 


Tid-slg, -sTaa, -eV. 
did-ovg, -ovacc, -6v. 




deixvv j 






deixv-x 


>g -vera, -i)V, 



[ 



fffTT] 

idldd) 
edelxvv 



Sing. 



IMPERFECT TENSE, § 109. 6. 

INDICATIVE MOOD, § 106. 1, 

Dual. 

LGTa 

hlOe 
edtdo 
sdslrv 

The other moods in the imperf. are wanting. 
Note. The numbers 1,2, 3, &c. refer to the same numbers in § 109, 

* § 6. 065. 5. 
12 



-TO^, -T77*>, 



* Plur. 
-/*£*>, re, -aav.v 



134 



sarr 
edrj 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN -/"*. 

PARADIGM OF VERBS IN -MI. 
ACTIVE VOICE. 

SECOND AORIST. 

INDICATIVE MOOD, § 106. 1. 

Sing. Dual. Plur. 



<§ 108. 



Mo, S 



-TJ/y, 



-^uey, -T£, -cr«y. 7 



SUBJUNCTIVE, § 106. 2. 



(7T | 
< 




-^TOy, -rpov. 


S 


-w, -<2>£, -co, -toiov, -coior, 




OPTATIVE, § 106. 3, 


axat 






0e{ 


► -7JV, ->?£, -f, 


~r]TOV, -if[xriv f 




IMPERATIVE, § 106 4. 


ovr^Qi* 


> 




Oi -g 


(--TO), 


-TO*', -TC0J', 


66 -5 


s 


» 



■0)|U£y, -^jTe, -coat. 



-TJflSV, -t]T8 9 -T](TaP. 



-T8. -Twaar* 



INFINITIVE, § 106. 5. 



GTTT] 

del 
Sox 



. -j>at, 



PARTICIPLES, § 106. 6. 

or&£, orao-a, otto;*'. 
fei?, Oelaa, dkv. 
dovg, davcra, d6v. 



.Mj/e 1. The numbers, 1,2, 3, &c, refer to the same numbers in § 109. 
Note 2. For the accents in these tables as in the tables of the first conju 
gation, See § 99. 2. , 



§ 108. PARADIGM OF VERBS IN /M. 

PARADIGM OF VERBS IN -ML 
MIDDLE VOICE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 



135 



' Sing. 
ilds I 



INDICATIVE, § 107. 1. 

Dual. 



-/uedov, -adov, -adov, 



dido L 
deixvv J 

SUBJUNCTIVE, § 107. 2. 

l(JT ) _ - _ 

did -co ( aa^, -<3, -co rat, 



Plur. 

-usda, -ads, -vtoli. 



-(b/uedov, -r^adov, &c. 
-dtfisdov, -coa#oj>, &c. 

OPTATIVE, § 107. 3 

Iora£ } 

T£0£ I \ - t ^v, -o, (cto 8 )-to, 



(hixsda, -rjcrfo, -avion* 
(hfisda, -(bads, -(dvtocu 



didol 

taia 
TtOs 



dido - a °> 9 "^ 

deixvv 

Infinitive, § 107. 1. 
2aru 
rids 
dido 
deixvv 



/uedov, .aOov, -adrjv, 

IMPERATIVE, § 107. 1. 

— , -adov, -adov, 



.[isda, -ads, -vto. 



-ada 




-ads, -aOaaav 

PARTICIPLES, § 107. 1. 

-uevog, -fxivrj, -psvov. 



Sinor. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 

INDICATIVE, § 107. 1. 

Dual. 



laid 



ididd 



-fxrjv,-ao& -to, -iiedov, -adov -adtjv, 

ideixvv 

The other moods of the imperfect are wanting. 

Jfole. The numbers 8, 9, refer to the same numbers in § 109 



Plur. 
jisda, -ads, -vxo % 



136 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN fit. 



§ 108. 



PARADIGM OF YERBS IN -MI. 
MIDDLE VOICE. 

SECOND AORIST. 
INDICATIVE MOOD, § 107. 1. 

Sing. Dual. Plural. 



ids \ ~f*V v , -OO, -TO, 

id6 



-{ieOov, -adov, -aOqv, 



-jisOa, -ads, -vto. 



SUBJUNCTIVE, § 1G7. 2. 



I -toll 



-w,ua&, -<5,-coTr)a, 



•d)jiisOov,-r[<jdov, &c. 
■(bfiedov, -toadov, &c. 



-(busda, .toade, -a^Toa. 



OPTATIVE, § 107. 3. 



oral \ 

del \ -M>, -o, ((TO 9 ) -TO, 



dot 



ot6l \ 

06 \ -oo, 9 .o0co, 

dd S 



-pedov, .oOov, .adyv, 

IMPERATIVE, § 107. 1. 

-odor, -adap, 



-[Lieda, ~o~0e, -vxo. 



-a#e, -oOcocrav. 



INFINITIVE, § 107. 1. PARTICIPLES, § 107. 1. 



(Jib ) 

06 \ -odcu. 

96 ) 



o~t4l \ 

06 \ ./uevog, -fiivr], -fievov. 



dd j 



The present and imperfect passive are like the pre- 
sent and imperfect middle. The second aor. pass, is 
wanting. 

Note. For the other tenses of verbs in m, see §§ 1 10 and 111, and for the 
dialects, § 102. 



§ 109. OBSERVATIONS ON VERBS IN fH. 137 

§ 109. OBSERVATIONS ON VERBS IN p*. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

1. The final letters of the 3d pers. plur. are properly .vioi; 
and these, combining with the preceding vowel, according to 
the rules of Euphony, (§ 6. 18.), become -aat, -eiot, -overt, . 

vort, -cocjt. 

2. In the optative, t] is often dropped before the final letters 
of the plural making* 

-aiuev, -aue, -aiev ; -eifiev, -ens, -eiev ; -otfiev, -one, -oiev % 

instead of 

~ali]usv, -atrjTe, -alr/crav ; -eit]uev, &c. 

3. lair^u has sometimes larr^ for Vo-raOi in the imperative ; 
and in compounds era is commonly used for uvr\di\ thus, avua- 
ia for uvaurrfii ; nuoaoxa for nagaai7]dt, &c. 

4. So also t16?] { iu, dldain, and fr/^, have sometimes Tl6ei,dl- 
dov, 2et, for tWsti, didoOi, 2edv ; but these are properly contracted 
forms of the primitive verb with the reduplication, used in the 
Ionic and Doric dialects ; thus, ridea, imper. rides, contr. 
rldec. 

5. As in verbs in -co, (§ 101. 2.) so also in those in fit, .ivr&v 
is used for -eiao-av in the imperative 3d pers. plural. 

6. The primitive in -co, with the reduplication, is sometimes 
used instead of the form in -pi in the present and imperfect ; 
thus, 

Present, 

T^eco, -ie ig, .iei, contr. -co, -elg, -eT, for TlOrjfit, -yg, -yen,, &c. 
Io-tccu). -ueig, .(let, contr. -6), -qg, -q, for 2crT7]fu 9 -rjg, -r]at, &c. 

Imperfect, 

hldsov, -eeg, -es, contr. -ovv, -evg, -ei, for hldrjv, -rjg, .rj, &c. 

through all the moods. 

7. The terminations -aouv, .ecrav, &c. in the 3 pers. plur., 
are frequently shorteued by syncope ; as, laxav^ for 2cfjaaav ; 

Elide v for iTldbauv ; s6av for Wrjoav. 

MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 

8. In the 2d pers. sing, of the imperfect indicative, mid. 
and pass, a is often rejected, and the concurring vowels con- 

12* 



138 TENSES FORMED FROM THE PRIMITIVE. § 110. 

tracted ; thus, 2vtm for turaoo ; itdov forrlOecro, &c. So in the 
Indie, pres. sometimes ?crr^ for loiavai. Also in the 2d pers. 
sing, of the optative, a is rejected, but the vowels, being inca- 
pable of contraction, remain unchanged. 

9. The same contraction takes place in the imperative ; but 
in the 2d aor. d&oo is contracted into 6ov only in compounds ; 
as, nag&Oov, vnoQov, &c. 



§ 110. TENSES FORMED FROM THE PRIMITIVE. 

Verbs in [u have only three tenses of that form ; viz. the 
Present, Imperfect and 2d Aorist. All the other tenses are 
formed from the first root of the primitive, as in the first con- 
jugation, (§ 93. 2.) and are inflected as the same tenses in 
verbs in -co ; as, 

xlOrjiu, from 0ia, has 1 fut. Oi^gg), dij<ro ( uat, &c. 
dldojjiu, from Sow, has 1 fut. dticrco, dtioofiai, &c. 
taty/it,, from or&w, has 1 fut. arojout), 1 aor. eoTrjoa, &c. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. First Future. Some verbs occasionally retain the re- 
duplication ; as, did(b(i(x) from dtdwjju, and verbs from deriva- 
tives in -vv(i) and -wvGi form the future from their primitives ; 
thus, delxvvuL from deixvuu), has the 1 Fut. delZ-u from dslxw. 

2. First Jlorist. TLOtjul, diduj/ui and Irjfjn, have -xa and 
-y.uurjv instead of -era and -gvcutjv in the 1st aorist indicative ; 
as, 1 aor. h'Qr]xa 9 £dr]x<i(j.7]i> ; eduxec, idiaxdfirjv, &c. In these verbs 
the other moods of this tense are wanting. 

3 Perfect and Pluperfect Active. Verbs in -fu from -im com- 
monly have bi before -xu of the perfect; those from -dot 
have i/ or a 5 as, ildrjui from 0eu>, Perf. iWeixa • ttmjpt from 
oimt, Perf. iaiyxa, or laiana'. In these tenses iottjui aspi- 
rates the augment, and, except in the singular of the in- 
dicative, hns a Syncopated form which resembles the pre- 
sent ; thus,* pi. kar^xa^Fr^ by Syncope, eara/iev, &c. inf. 
£crTf/xeVcu, by Syncope tcrtdvui; participle, as § 101. 7. 

Ofa. The perf. act. of lgtt^ui has a present signification ; 
thus, VoTf/xa, / stand, plup. tarrjxftr, I stood. In the pres., 
Imp., Fut., and 1 Aor. Act. it signifies to place, to cause to 
stand. In the passive throughout, to be placed. The 2 Aor. 
Middle is not in use. 



^ Hi, 112. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS IN.JW. 139 

4. Passive voice. The short vowel of the root remains 
short before a consonant in the passive voice ; as, dldwui, 1 
Fat. pi. do-drjvoitat, 1 Aor. m-dyp, Perf. dido-pou, & c . ' But 
bl before -xa in the perfect active returns before -fiat, in the 
Perf. passive; as, Perf. Act. t<(06*.x«, 1 Fut. Pass, re-Mao*™, 
(§ 6. 4.) Perf. Pass, ride^uat. ' F ' 

5. rentes wanting. Verbs in ,«* want the second and third 

roots, and consequently the tenses derived from them ; viz. 
the Second Future Passive, the 2d Perfect and 2d Pluper- 
fect Active, and the 2d Aorist Passive. 



§ 111. TABLE EXHIBITING ALL THE TENSES 
OF VERBS IN MI. 



MIDDLE. 

icrTccfiai, 
lard /Hi] v, 

OTT^fOptaij 



t(TT&[l7]V. 

criadr'ioojiKU. 



lax&dqy. 



ACTIVE. MIDDLE. PASSIVE, 

Present. t<ni$u 9 

I m perf. Iottjv, 

1 Fut. aT7J(ja), 

2 Fut. 

1 Aor. eottjo'gc, ioTTjo&iuijv, 

2 Aor. £(7Ti]v, iaxd/uyvy 

Perf. eoicmcc or -qxa, ? eazcxfiav. 

Pluperf. kcri&xeivoY eloiuxsw. — , £azd/4?p. 

Verbs in MI to be conjugated. 

7tl{i7ilij{u, from Tita'co, I filly 
hence nl^Oa*. 

oil v pit, disco, I destroy, 

vlxijfu, vLX&w, I conquer, 

cprjfd) (jpdo), / say. 

xXvjlu, tcXvoj, I hear. 

Qb)w vfii, £ rfo, I strengthen. 



lyui, from to), I send. 

2v ' \ o8£w. I extinguish, 
obzvvvui) \ ' ° 

tzvyvviu, 'Ct-vyM, I join. 

didijui, diw, J bind. 

inr r h ui, 7i raw, / /?*/. 

o)'?]ixi, 6 IBM, I help. 

ofivvtu, dfiow, I swear. 



§ ill IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS 

in [it. 

The Irregular and Defective verbs in fu are usually reck- 
oned nine, viz. elfil, I am ; elav and i'?/^, / go ; irj/Lu, I send; 
alfiut,, I clothe myself; r\<uai, I sit ; xtlfiai, I lie down; <prj[Al, I 
say ; and I'ojjui, I know. The parts in use are as follows : 



IRREGULAR 


AND DEFECTIVE VERBS IN /**. 




- 


I. Eifzi, I am. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Indicative. 




S. Blfll, 




sig or el, 


iarl T 


D. 




ifTTOV, 


iarbr. 


P. iapkr, 




$078, 

Subjunctive. 


sIgI. 


S. S>, 




fa 


1 


D. 




\tov. 


far, 


?. 5>/Lier, 




fa, 

Optative. 


fafJb. 


S. Sl'lJVy 




*%, 


*ty, 


D. 


• 


sYtjtov, 


Sl^TT]*, 


P. B?ri[Jt6V, 




el'+rs, 


si'tjvuv. 


Imperative. 




Infinitive. 


Participl 


S. £<ro, 


eo"'fw, 




slvai,. 


M. ffir, 


D. SCTTOV, 


£0TG>J', 






F. oi)d(x 9 


P. laze, 


eareoc7«y. 




N. o^. 






IMPERFECT TENSE, 








Indicative. 




S. fo 




fe 


^ or ^, 


D. 




%{TOV, 


ijr^, 


P. fy*£*, 




1 


]l6, 


^aav. 



§ 112 



The other moods the same as in the Present. 



MIDDLE VOICE. 

IMPERFECT. 

Indicative. 

S. fy"7*S ^o, 

"D. r\usdov, fjcrOov, 

P. riueda, yaOs, 



J(TO, 

r\vjo m 



1 FUTURE TENSE. 

Indie. Zaojuou, Opt. eool[ir}v, Inf. ZvsaOcu, Part, iodusvog, regular. 



§ 112 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS IN (U. 



141 



1. 

Sing, eifd, D. £///«, 

My rfyt. 
Plur. iGjilv, £tfiEs, 

P. £fi£Vy £l[i£V. 

Sing, w, I. soj, P. ftco. 
Plur. &ii£i>, D. c5/*es, 

?. $lo)fl£Vy UOfXW. 

Sing, aqi', I. potfii. 
Plur. ur][x£v, I. efyei/. 



Sng. 
Plur. 



THE CHIEF DIALECTS OF elfil. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

PRESENT. 

Indicative. 

2. 3. 

C?S, or £?, I. i'sf?, P. esty itrrl, D. £Vri, ivl. 
iaal. 

£CT£y P. £>£. 



Subjunctive. 

J?, I. £7tf, P. £*7jg. 



Optative. 

uris, I. £0t£. 

£ITIT£. 

Imperative. 
£<TOy P. IVco, A. ladt. 

£0T£. 



fifol, D. EVTI, JEt. EVTly £VV- 

rt, P. £a<ri y laaai* 

J, I. £77, £17J, ^Ci, £^ff|, 

P. rtwi. 

(Offly I. £(a)(TI. 



£tT?, I. £««. 

tfrjaav, I. A. £i£j>. 



£ffrciJ« 

carojaavy A. IVrcuf, P.£oV- 

T6)V. 



Infinitive. 

ttvaiy I. £//£»', £?//£!/, D. Zpevaiy n^Vy rijji£g, £?/>(£?, iE. iftxwaiy P. £///*£?. 

Parh'ci^/e. 
Fem. owa, I. wot, D. I Neut. 6V, I. £di/, ^E. IV 

£wa, loTcra, h'aaaay I 
^E. aoa, £aaa. \ 

IMPERFECT. 

>7?, I. ££J, ££fff, P. 77£?, 

£aj, ivKCSy JEt. r\a- 
da, £t]TBa. ^~ " 

X\TOVy zE. £OT0l>, P. £TOV., 

rjarou. 

T\T£y I. £OLT£. 

MIDDLE VOICE. 

IMPERFECT. 

Indicative. 



M. CJVy I, £0)Vy JEf £1$. 



Sing. t]Vy I. £a, rjcty P. £/?!/, 
£i^v, jfai/, £oi/, rjoi/, 
£o-koj/. 

Du. 

Plur. tjpKV, D. J?//£J, P. fyfil/. 



>7, or J71/, I. D. hi m, P» 

£0-*£. 



A. r)o 



, P. £ V (T 



777-771/, A. 770-7*71/, Jr. £<srr\v» 
r\aavy P. £o*ai/, iaaavy Zgkov* 



Plur. 



Sing, iaopaiy D. eaovfjai, 
iffEVjxaiy P. IWo 
pat. 

Plur. £<r6a£0a,JEi. £(j6ii£(xBa. 



I »7i/to, I. £*aro, £?aro. 



FIRST FUTURE, 

Indicative. 

£Crrjy A. £0-£t, I. £(T£0tty £(T- 
G£ai, D. EOT), fiffOJ, 
P. £0077. 

£.O£O0£. 



£<7£Taty D. eo-£rrrtf, IdatX^ 
raty P. £<r<T£Tai, 



u, D. 



£eroui/rac. 



Infin* icr£<r9aiy P. lcj(T£aBai. Particip. fio-d/ui/oj, P. l(7a6^£voi. 



' 7^ 

142 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS IN fll. § Il'£- 

II. E///£, /^O. 
ACTIVE VOICE. 



Indie. 

Subj. 

Opt. 

Lnper. 

Infin. 



Singular. 
slpi, fig or ti, mhi. 



PRESENT TENSE. 

IV or, tYo*>, 
i'ijor^ YijTor t 

It or, iitov, 



Plural. 
?jufr, Its : Xgl or tW*. 
Iwpsv, YrfiEy I'gktl. 

lOlflBV, XoLTB ) I'oiEV. 

Vis. It warn'. 



Uvai. Part. lcor : Iowa, h'iv^ Gen. lovtoq, lovarjc, &c 

IMPERFECT. 



Sing, fjsiv or pa. 

Dual. 

Plur. fisifisv or jyW) 



Indicative. 
ysig or fjU(T&(x ) 

IjtlTOV or jlTQV) 

jftire or /)rs, 



t]UTr t v or i7Ti?i>, 
jito-txr, Ion. rfiaav. 



Middle Voice.— 'It{itu> to hasten. 

Lidicative. 

Present, i'-epai, -fern*, -£T«t, -ipedov, &c. 
Imperf. l-ipi t v ) -ftro, -6to, -t^tOoPy &c. 

Obs. 1. The Attics, ami sometimes the Ionians, use the Present 
of *tya> in the Indie., Inf., and Part., in a Future sense, " I will go." 

Obs.2. The ancient Grammarians have another form of the Im- 
perfect, viz. a>, tic, -€t— !toj>, h?^ — ?ju6f 3 Irs, t'crar; — and of the 
second Aorist, Tor, frc, le, &c. ; but, except the third persons fo, 
mjv, and VaaVj peculiar to epic writers, no such forms are found. 

III. C [>]/Lii, to send , from "EI2. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 



coy/*?', IrjTS, lata i. 



Indie. iTjfii, ujg, Xrpi, utov, istojj, 

Op£. \iU\v, Itlrjg. &c. 

Imper. \u ft U&L\ serai, (Wof, ihwv, &t«, Uiwaav. 

Infin. Uvai, Participles. Uig, leiaa, Uv, Gen. UvTog, &c. 



§ 112 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 143 

* IMPERFECT. 

Indie, tfor, iW, If s. ) ( , c , t , c , c , 

^ C r t r ' C f } LSTOV, 18171V. LSUSV, UTS. UGOIV. 

Contr. tow, ulq lsl \ ' ' ' ' ? 



Indie, rja-w, -etg, &c. 
Indie. r t y.-a, -ag, &c. 



FUTURE. 



1 AORIST. 



2 AORIST. 



fttfjic. Sime as 1st Aor. stro*>, ut7]v, elpsv, she, eivav. 

Sllbj. d), ]]Q, fj. &c. 

0/)£. el'^v, fliyc, fl'17, feroi', aV?yX' ? riper, she, stsv. 

Imper. t'g, I'tox ? ro»', IVajr Its, sTacrav. 

Injin. sivai. Participles, slg, siva, I'v, Gen. svxog, &c. 

PERF. St'/.-lX, -«C, &C. PLUPERF. SIK-84V) -eig, &c. 

MIDDLE VOICE. 



Indie. lepra, IWca, I'fT«< 3 Upe&ov, &c. 

Subj. iwfiai, if], IrjT&i, lo)fis&oi\ &c. 

0/j£. lolpvv, &c. Imper. Yeao or c iov. Lrftn.isaSai. Part.ti[isvog,&,c. 

Indicative. 
Lmperf. Efifi^v, IWoj &c. Fut. reopen, &c. 1 Aor. rtxdfinv, &c. 

2 AORIST. 

Indie, npijv, slao, slro, eipe&ov, sia&ov, e r ia&yv, sXfxsd^a, &c. 
iSfafr/. oi^iai, ^. /}t(//, &c. 
0/>£. oXflTjV^ 010, olio, &e. 

Imper. ov, sa-d-oj, &c. /«/£«. sar&ca. Part, spevog, -17, -ov. 

Perf. Indie, ripen, rival, &c. /tt/m. eia&cu. 
Plperf. Indie. slpr t v, slao, &c. 

PASSIVE VOICE. . 

Future. Indie. Id-f^opun. 

1 Aor. Indie, u&yv. Part. h&slq. 



144 IRKEGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 112. 

IV. El/uaiy I clothe myself. 

This Verb comes from £«, to go info, to be sent, or, put into. — 
Middle, to jmt one?s self into, to clothe one's self; and it is the) 
same in the Present Middle, and Present and Perfect Passive; thus, 

PRES. MID., AND PRES. AND PERF. PASS. 

ladle. S. H-pai, -duty -rat and -arai. — 3d PL uvuu. Part, eifiwog* 

FIRST AORIST. 

Indie, ela (ftrcr-, hicr) -u^w', -<w, -aio y &c. Part, kaadfissog. 

PLUPERFECT. 

Indie. eifi7}v : hcto, and iWo; tiro. aoro, moto, and taxo, 3d PL tivxo 

V. Elca, did set, did place. 

Eioa, a poetic defective verb signifying to lay, viz. a founda- 
tion ; to erect (a building); to place (an ambush), has the fol- 
lowing parts. Active Voice. 1 Aor. Indie, siaa; Imper. ticrov; 
Infin. nova ; Part. urrag, and f'ovxe. Middle Voice. Indie. ho"«- 
fir t v ; Part, f ladgxsvog ; Future, eiao^cc^ seldom used. The de- 
fective parts are supplied from idgveo. — The Perfect Passive, 
having the force of an intransitive Present, is as follows, 

VI. ^Kluou, I sit. 

This verb may be regarded as a perfect passive from ia> 9 1 
put, place, or set ; Plup. p. / have been placed or set, and re- 
main so ; i. e. / sit It wants the subjunctive and optative 
except in the compound x&Oijugu, which has xudwitvu, xudolpyv, 
&c. and is more common than fiucu. 



PRESENT. 



Indie. \-uui,-n(n,-iai,\-ueQov 9 -oOov, -udov, 

Imper. r\ — , -ao, -odoh\ , -odor, -oOojv, 

Inf. 7\(jd(ti. 

Part. T\uevog, -77, ~ov. 



.[ieda, -crOe, -vxav. 
— , -aOe, -crOojoav, 



IMPERFECT. 
Indie. r\-M v ) -°~ )' -to^-fieOofy-oOov, -oOrjv, \-[ieda, -ads, -vxo. 

Obs. 3. For r\vxai the Ionians use Saxon, and the Poets e?a- 
rai ; and for \vxo in like manner saxo and s2axo. So also 
for x&dqvrcu and x&Qrjvxo the Ionic forms are xaxiaxat and 
xaxiaxo. § 101. 12. 



§ 112. IRREGULAR AND EEFECTIVE VERBS. 145 

VII. Ksiuou, Hie down. 

This verb may be regularly derived from xsea, for eco by 
proshesis of xs ; xeea becomes xi V fu in the 2 couj. and in the 
middle, xieficu, by contraction, xelfmt. It has the Ionic forms, 
xiaxai and exeaxo for xelvxou, and bxevvto. § 101. 12. 



Singular. 
Indie, xsi-uat,, -uai, -rat, 
Imp. xsl — , -(jo, -oda, 
Inf. xeZvOou. 
Part, xettxevog, -rj, -ov. 



PRESENT. 

Dual. Plural, 
-fisdov, -adov, .oOovA-fieda, -ade, -vtoli. 
, -odov,-oduv,\ — ,-ads,-crdw(Tav. 



IMPERFECT. 

Indie. §xel- M v,-oo f -to, \-fis0ov,-adov,-odtiv,\-ti80a 9 -(rde 9 .VTO. 

FIRST FUTURE. 

Indie, xeia-ojuai,, -77, -btoli, &c. regular. 

VIII. <&yi[u, I say. 
*Wt t except w >, in the 2d sing. pres. hid. a. is like fory/*. 
It appears to have had an ancient form 4pt, whence, prob- 
ably we have the forms of the imperfect, fa fa «J, frequently 
used in familiar language with <F iyeb and 9 k ; as, lv $ iyl 
"said I," 7) <r fc, "said he." The infinitive tp&vcu is always 
used in the sense of the past time; as, <pd*>«* rdv Svmtfny, 
"that Socrates has said." When the present infinitive is re- 
quired it is supplied by leyew. 



IX. Old a, I know. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

PRESENT. 

Singular. Dual. 



Ind. olda, olada*o7de; 
Subj.eldu, eldrjg, eldrj ; & c . 
Opt. eidelr i v i elSetjjg, eld sty ; &,c, 
Imp. i'crdi, i'arco; 



Inf. eldivat. 



I'cttov, I'otov ; 



I'gtov, fenojp; 



Plural. 
i'afiep > I'arsjfaracn 



Part, eldtig, -vTa } -6g, 



— , I'cfTe^GTOiaav. 



* OiSug, with the paragogic 6a, ol'duodct, by syncope oloQa. Old 
Attic form oloCag. 

13 



» 



146 DEPONENT VERBS. § 113. 

IMPERFECT. 

Sing, fjdetp, rj'de ig, (Com. f]de codec 9 Att.f^rjoda,) fdH 9 Att. ydrj, 

Dual. ,fjdcuot> 9 ifdsiTOv; 

Plur. jj'deiuev, (or yjo/Lier,) ydsiTS, (or ^ore,) 7jdeicrav,(oY rfcrav.) 
Future ei'aofAai^ more rarely zldfow, I shall know, experience. 
Verbal adj. Neut. Icneov. 
The aorists and perfect are supplied from ycyvtioxcx). 

Obs. 4. Olda is strictly a 2d perf. from e.¥d<u 9 Isee. Perf. 
I have seen, or perceived, i. e. I know. In this sense it is used 
as a present only, and its pluperfect as an imperfect, as above. 
For taper, the Ionians have i'djusv ; and for elderai, the Epic 
writers have ¥duevai 9 and idfier. 

Matthiae and the older grammarians derive the above forms, begin- 
ning with i, by syncope from an assumed verb I'arjui, of which in the 
Doric dialect the forms Xaaia, i'oyg, loan, and the part. toccg, are 
extant. On the other hand, Buttman, Kuhner, and others, think 
these forms all belong to oZ«3'a, or si'dw — that ia t usv, according to the 
ordinary method of derivation, is formed from the Ionic i'dusv, (§6, 11.) 
which manifestly belongs to ei'Sw, and not to Varjfii ; while Xarov, Xors, 
are, by a similar analogy, from tdrov, I'drs , from the same, by dropping 
the mood vowel ; and that the imperative termination, Si, is substi- 
tuted for the ordinary termination, as is usually done when the mood 
vowel is omitted, as in y.ixoaybi, civa/di, &c. This is probably the 
true origin of these forms. (See Buttman's Gr. § 109, III.) It is 
certain, however, that, so far as usage is concerned, the above mixed 
paradigm of olda is the only correct one. 

For a catalogue of irregular and defective verbs, see § 117. 

§ 113. DEPONENT VERBS. 

1. Deponent verbs are those which under a middle and 
passive form have either an active or middle signification. 

2. Deponent verbs, have the middle form, except in the per- 
fect, pluperfect and Paulo-post future, in which the forms are 
passive. Their perfect has sometimes both an active and 
passive sense. 

3. Some of these verbs have also a passive form of the first 
future and first aorist, always used in a passive sense. 

4. The Tenses of deponent verbs are : the Present, Imper- 
fect, Perfect, Pluperfect, and Paulo post- future of the passive 
form ; the First Future and First Aorist of the middle form ; 
and the First Future and First Aorist in the passive form, and 

* Oldas with the paragogic Ba becomes olSaoda, and then by syncope olaBa^ 
as above. 



§ 114, 115. IMPERSONAL OR MONOPERSONAL VERBS. 147 



with a passive sense. A few have a second aorist middle. 
They are usually conjugated by giving the Pres. and 1 Fut. 
Mid. and Perf. Pass. ; thus, de/opai, digofiou, dedey^iav. 

SYNOPSIS OF DEPONENT VERBS. 





Indicative. 


Subjunctive. 


Optative. 


Imp. 


Infin. 


Part. 


Present, 
fm perfect, 




Six-opai, 


-oipr?j/, 


-ov, 


-so-dai, 


-ouevog ■ 


Perfect, . 
Pluperfect, 


SeSsy-Hai, ) 
iSeSey-firjv, ) 


StSey-jisvos w, 


-jxevog e'lrjv, 


-GO. 


-(rdai, 4 .-{xivog. 


1 Future M. 


Si^-o/xat, 


wanting, 


-OifJi^V, 


wanting, 


-ecrdai, 


-6jji€vog. 


1 Aorist M. 


iSe^-afxr]Vy 


Se^-cojxai, 


-aifxriv, 


-at, 


-aadai, 


-d[X£PO$, 


1 Fut. Pass. 


Se^dria-ofiaij 


wanting, 


'Oi/XT}V, 


wanting, 


-eadai, 


ofievog. 


1 Aor. Pass. 


td£%d-r]v, 


Mx dm< *i 


-EirjVy 


-r/rt, 


-fjyai, 


-tig. 


P. P. Fut. 


deSi^-opai, 


wanting 


-OlfiTJVy 


wanting, 


-evdai, 


-OflEVOS 



Note. In the above table the imperative and infinitive of the perf. diozy-co 
and ScSey-aOai are changed by euphony mtods6e£o and Ssfexdai, § 6. 7. 17. 



§ 114. IMPERSONAL OR MONOPERSONAL 
VERBS. 

Many verbs are occasionally taken impersonally ; as, doeV 
*££, it pleases ; dcgxel, it suffices; ov^cpiqev^ it is profitable, &c. 

The following are those which are chiefly taken impersonal- 
ly; viz. 

1. noiTtBi, it is becoming ; %7tQene, it was becoming ; ttqs- 
nziv, to be becoming; to nqhnov^ that which is becoming; pi. 
jxTiroirtovTa, 

2. juHei, it concerns ; s/nele, [islfoei,, iLte/LiilTjxs and fiifirjle. 

3. d ox el, it appears ; edoxei, (from doxew) ; edo£s, (doxco) ; 
r<i doKovvnx. 

4. det, it behoves ; Edei, Se^vei, dsTv, to diov, to. SsovTa. 

5« XQ^i it is necessary ; &y.gr\v^ xq^ctei^ XQ^pom, and ZQV V '^ T0 
Zq&wv, contracted for xqeuov. Subj. /otj.. 



§ 115. DESIDERVTIVE, FREQUENTATIVE, AND 
INCEPTIVE VERBS. 

1. Desiderative Verbs are those which denote a desire or 
/■ intention of doing. They are commonly formed by adding 
-<7£/o> to the first root of the primitive ; as, 
yelaut, I laugh ; 1 R. ysla- yelaoelw, I desire to laugh. 

-toXsjtiict), I make war ; „ nols/us- noleiirjoelto, I desire war 



148 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 116. 

Another form of desideratives is that in -dw or -«xa>, properly 
from substantives ; as, from O&vaxog, death; davccT&a, I long 
for death ; (TTQajrjybg, a general; GTQaTTjyi&a), I wish to be a 
general. Also from verbs, by first forming substantives from 
them ; as, 

&i>Elod(xi, to buy; ((bv^r^g,) tb^^rtdco, I wish to buy. 

xlul(Q, I weep ; (xlavoig,) xXocvoi&w, I am disposed to weep. 

2. Freqjcjentatives are those which signify repealed action. 
These commonly end in -£co ; as, Qimb'( s st,v, (from qItitsiv,) to 
throw from one place to another, Mid. to throw one's self this 
way and thai, to be restless ; aTev&^etv, (from aiivew^) to sigh 
much and deeply ; so, from alxeTv, to demand ; cdxlteiv, to beg 
egn8iv, to creep; tgnv^eiv, to creep slowly. 

3. Inceptives are those which express the beginning or 
continued increase of an action. These commonly end in 
-rjxco ; as, yevslaoxai, to begin to have a beard ; rfi&axo), to 
grow to manhood; (the same as ysveuk^co and ffi&w) ; in part 
transitive; as, /uedvaxco, to intoxicate ; from peOva), lam intoxi 
cated. 



$ 116. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

In many of the Greek verbs, a variety of forms, and an apparent irregu- 
larity in the formation of different tenses appears. This is occasioned partly 
by the adoption of new forms of the present and imperfect tenses, which 
are used either jointly with their primitives, if they are still in use; or in 
their stead, if they have become obsolete, while the other tenses continue as 
regularly formed from the primitive verb; and partly by the use of tenses 
taken from synonymous verbs of a different theme, in the place of those 
which have become nearly or entirely obsolete ; and thus, as it were, out of 
the fragments of two or more verbs, whose other parts have disappeared, is 
formed a new whole. The parts of this whole, being all that remains in 
use of their respective roots, considered by themselves are really defective 
verbs. And some of these, though regularly formed from their own themes, 
yet not being formed from the present to which they are attached, but from 
some other verb related to it in form or signification, the whole verb is not 
improperly termed anomalous or irregular. This appellation, then, properly 
belongs to all those verbs whose present, first future, and perfect, do not fol- 
low the common analogy of conjugation. A few examples will illustrate 
these remarks ; thus, Juw, to founder, has Svvco, dv^<, and Juo-koj, all different 
forms of the present • but the first future, and the tenses derived from it, 
are regularly formed from the primitive Sta, and the second aorist eSw from 



§ H6. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 1 49 

S:i:;; te x n n ( ;x' 7 s;:: . rr* w,andp -^ 

obso.ete .*,. an P dthe L , m .' X^T^lj^ T f 

use wiu, ,ts imperf. e™^,, ls a defective verb, having no other tenses de 
nved from the m; in like manner, the- other parts From thd s ut 
heroes are so many defective verbs. But, taken together, and as at h d 
to ™ xw a theme from which they are not formed, according to the com 
ZTZ° gy 0r ™^^y «™ "hat is cahed an anom^l^- 

In most irregular verbs the irregularity is caused W th« 
adoption of. new present and impifec^form^ lZ S£ 
changes on the root of the vAb in these tenses" whiKheo C 

, ,/,, . , lrom -ah msi i s formed the new Drespnt 
1*1*66™, imperfect, iUpSuvov, while the P„LT P resen 
*Hhe tenses following it ^^X^^^ 

folfows: ^ ^ neW FeSentS are f0rmed from old roots as 
I- By the addition of certain letters to the root ; thus 
Theme Root. let. add. Jfeu, P ns . F J 

2rt;' r ? ^kesWto, ^ 

3 aVO>, £y_ V1 , JL , 



£i7Q). 



5 eAacx), Ha- vv >i , 

/ /?" <™, „ yrjoaax-w, 



change a or o ino i ; thus," ' '° * a " d 0thers 

Theme. Root. R. changed, let. add. Wev, Pres. Put 

I 7 &<*,, Geo. 6m. ox, G^ox-o, e«tom, 

III. Of roots that end with a s-mute or a r-mute, the final 
nute is sometimes dropped before the added letters ; thus 

13* ' 



150 • IllREGUI.VK AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. $ 116- 

Theme. Root. U. changed, lei. add. New P,es. Fut. 

IV Some form a new present from the second root changed 
before the added letters by inserting v, which before a Tt.mute 
becomes fi; thus, 

Theme 1 Root 2 R. changed, lei. add. New Pre*. Ftrf. 

V. By Syncope or contraction ; as, 

JVtw Put 
" a l • Vw <=!vncooe. 6ika. Fut. Oel^om. 

££, by d'onble Syncope, I*k **■ 4 * J +"* 

VI By Reduplication, viz. of the initial syllable; of 'he ; 
iaitiai consonant with »;and of . commonly called the nnpro- 
per reduplication ; as, 

New Pres. Fut. 

Theme. . » t 

te by Red. of initial syllable, WW g* 

,/. ' J „ consonant with *, <M<to, ^oro>. 

ctt&», improper Red. WTUU, » ' 

Vir. By Metathesis or transposition of letters, which how. 

ever rarely occurs; as, 

n , JVeio Pres. Fut. 

Theme. Root. 

Siox»>, dig*- by Metathesis, dqix- <5?**-<"', &¥*«. 

VIII. By Aphctresis, or cutting off the initial letters; as, 

£0&d, by Apbaeresis becomes 0<ttw. 
ioim „ v . ^' u - 

IX. Ill several, two or more of these modes of variatioi 
combine to form the new present ; thus, 

1 Bv VI and II, '(vim becomes jr*jr«*ff«w, fut. p J™- 

2 By VI and I, dq&u becomes *.tyi<r*«», „ <^<f • 

3 By VI and III, S&X°> becomes SMoxu, „ di0&±w. \ 

* See § 6. 19. j 



§ 117. LIST OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 151 

4 By VI, pivu becomes fiifiivu>, and by V, plppu, fut. ^A». 

5 By VI, ri*oi becomes wl*w, by V, t/tx©, and by VII,t/xtu>, 

fut. T£^(0. 

6 By I, f*ai becomes Ixdw, by V, ?x*co, by I, feyfo, txvio/uh, 

fut. Kw. 

7 By VIII a^'© becomes ?&», by VII, ?jw, fut. both SWnd 

§ 117. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF IRREGULAR AND 
DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

EXPLANATION. 

In the following Table, the words in capitals are the roots from which cer- 
tain tenses are formed, but which are themselves either entirely obsolete or 
are merely supposed, in order to derive from them by analogy the forms in use. 

VV hen there is but one form of the root, the numbers 1, 2, & c . are omitted, 

as in OLycxi. ' 

i L3??i. Ca / ,M R r after ? t ® nse indica tes that the verb is conjugated regularly 
trom the tense after which it is placed. s * 

\ A. 

Aya/iat, to admire i a passive form from &y W t) Th. dydu, (1 R. dya-,) - pr. 
and imp. like fecial - Ryd^a h s. s.— fut. dyd^ai, R. 

fyri*H Zyvvja, to break : from S yw , (R. Sy-,) 1 f. S|a>, &c , R. i a . I'«|a, 
2 a. p. idynv, 2 perf. I'aya, with a passive signification. It com- 
monly takes the syllabic augment, probably owing to its having 
anciently had the digamma as the initial letter; thus, pr. Fdyu, 
1 a. eFa(a, and then ea^a ; &c. 

A<Jg> ; See hvSavw. 

A yw , to lead : (R. S y -,) f. S | Wj &c . r. It has a reduplication in the 2 a. 
Vy™, P erf - W and with the reduplication, dyf,o X a y (poetic, 

dyvoij dyivcj.) 
Ae^oi ; See av^dvco. 

p», to tote r (1 R. «,y-, 2. IX-, from EAQ,) f. a^™, or -*™, &c. R. 

fut. !A<3, 2 aor. elXop, mid. E $Xa W Alexandrian form for sVkd^v 

iMdvoiiat, to perceive : (1 R. ai*Qi-, 2. aM-,) f. m. airti^ai, &c. R. from 

AIE9EOMAI, aor. 2. jj^y. 
&.X*anw, d\St*K<a 9 to nourish : (1 R. dU£- t ) . f. dX(W &c. R. from AA- 

AE2. 
ixifa, to avert: (1 R. d^- and «A;«-,)f.dX^™, &c. from AAESEQ ; 

1 aor. m. d^d^v, &c. from AAEK&. 
kteiwu, dMopat, to shun : (1 R. d\ev-, fVom 'AAEY'ft,) 1 a. $X«wra, 1 a. m. 

fiXevdfxnv and rj\edjxff Vf by elison of <r for r)Xev<rdfir}v. 
\*tpSea>, to roll : (1 R. aXi-,) f. dXt'tru, &c. R. from dX«o. 



152 LIST OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117. 

AAfffKw, to take : (1 R. aAo-,) f. aAw<r«, &c. R. from AAOS2, 2 aor. tdAwv, 
or fiXwj/, from AAS2MI. This verb has a passive signification 
in the aorists and perfect active. 

'AAvoxw, oKvoKavu, to avoid: (1 R. d\vK-,) fut. dXt5|a>, &c. R. from AAY- 
K£2, s. s. as d\e(x). 

y A\<paii>a) } (a\(pavo), dA^cuco,) to gain: (1 R. d\(p£-,) fut. dA<pJ5<ra>, &C. R. from 

AA$E£2. 

'Apaprdvcjj td*err : (1 R. a^aprl-,) fut. apaprrjaoj, &C. R. from afxaprsa), 

'Aji6\i<rK(o, to miscarry : (1 R. d/^Ad-,) fut. d/*6Aco(ra>, &c. R. from d/itfAda), 

'A/i7r£^a), and df.nrta^viojxai. See £%co. 
ApKpicvvvfxi. See evvvfii. 

'AvayiviovKGi. See yivdJGKOi. 

'Ava\ioKto, to read : See dAf<rica>. 

AvJdyw, £o please: (1 R. &&-, 2. aJ-, 3. a<5-,) fut. a(5>7<rw, &c. R. from a^£w 
2 a. ia8ov for »]Joi/,2perf 2o(5o, with the syllabic augment, s. s. as fi$<o 

'Avoiyvvoi, dvoiyvvfxi, from dvoiyw, {avh and diya),) £o open : (R. oiy-,) f 
dvoifa, p. di/cw^a, &c. R. often with both temporal and syllabii 
augment; as, imp. dy£uyoi/,2perf.di>£wya, &c. 

'Ai/wyw, to order : (1 R. dvwy- and di/coy£-,) f. dj>w|w, &c. R. or, f. droj 
y»5o-a>, &c. R. from dvcoyeu ; hence, pres. imperative, dvco^di, di'co^ 
0w, &c. by syncope for dvcbyrjdi, dvcoyrjra}, &c. as if from AN12F 
HMI,2perf.Wy«. 

'A-rrc^Odvoixai. See s^ddvofiai. 

'Airavpaoy, to take away: (from otto and A YP£2, 1 R. afy-,) imperf. F 
d-rrrjvpaovj 1 aor. dnovpa, m. aTrnvpdnrjv, from dratted. From th 
verb, or more probably from A1IOYPS2, (the obsolete Th. ( 
dirovpiga), to dispossess,) comes 1 aor. inf. dirovpai, part, drovpa 
and d-xovpafxevog, used by Homer, Pindar, and Hesiod, in th 
sense of "to rob;" " to plunder ;" "to encroach on the limits ( 
property of another.^ 
AttoWv/jh. See oWvfxt. 

'ApeaKoj, to please : (1 R. ape-,) fut. dpeau), fipena, &e. R. from dpeu). 

*Ap(o y to fit, or adapt : (1 R. ap-,) fut. doti and «,o<rcj, (§ 101. 4. (6.) ) 
ripKa. &c. R.2perf. ripapa and apripa, with the Attic reduplicatic 
from j^a. 

A.i)|cj, and ai}|ut/a>, /o encrease : (1 R. av|s-,) fut. a^o-w, &c. R. from AY 

E12 ; likewise, d£'|w, d^o-o), &c. from AEEE£2. 
AxOo/jiat, to be indignant : (1 R. d^;0£-,) fut. d^Oriaofxau or-iaopat, &c. ] * 
from d^Oeujxai. 

B. 

Baii/w, pdaKG), pt6du, to go : (1 R. 6d-,) 1 fut. 0fjao[jtai, p. fiiSrjxa, &C. R. frc 
BA12; 2 aor. «&;«/, from BHMI ; imperat. f3rj6i, in compouni 
shortened, as, KardSa. N. B. /frfaw, in the fut. act. and ft/d ^ 
1 aor. have exclusively an aclive signification, to cause to go, 



§ 117. LIST OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 153 

Ban., to throw: ( t R. gaX-, and taXl-,) fut. /J«X<5 (Poet. /KM*-) 8rti, n . 
««, &c. R. as if from BAAEQ ; hence, by syncope, BAEQ, 
from which £%,, a regular verb of the 2d conjugation. 

B,^,tolive: (IR.K) fut. /W-.&c.R. from ,*,. 2 aor . lgia „ 
from &'&>/«,■ (all in use.) 

BW™ W , to 6«rf , (1 R. a^j fut . / , Wrt!ra> &c _ R from BAA2TEa 

b w -, to /,.« j , (i R . »„ and g,,^ fut ^ &c _ R from fita and 

r. (ZovKfjaco, &c. R. from /?o<ta:£ W 
• BovA 0/laI , to „«* .. tl R . 0ovX ,_ t 2 ^^ f 0ovMaolialj &c . R . fn)m Boy , 

AEQ ; hence also ; 2perf.^£«o»Xa. 
B P ^, /S^to eat: (1 R. e P 6-,) fut . fif ^ &c . R> from 
x2 aor. f^wj/, as if from /fyco/«. 

r. 

ft*, *o marry : (1 R. ^ and y ^ ?) ^ ^^ and _^ ^ R ^ 

i . „ l aor ' W^«, N T. ; and fy^as if from TAMQ, or THMQ. 
rWo,m Homer, Ae ^ ; probably for fr £ro ; y being put for F, and , for 

X, as jo the Dor. ?„fc for ftfc - thus, FsA.ro would become y*W 

and by syncope, yivro. 
I*»*-, to grow old: (1 R. ripa ., and ^ E ^^ &c _ R from 

P«» 5 1 aor. I w from THPa • w ,j„ al pres . i„f. f rora ^ 

. .y^„ ,*-„„, to ta, ( i R . y£ „ £ . ; 2 3 y£r , 5 4;,; &c . 

R from rENEQ,2perf. y£>ra . N. B. Allied to this vert, is 
! W to 6, Jorn ; (1 R. y£I v,) used i„ the pr. and imp. ; the«irst aor. i ya . 
v* M » W used actively, to beget, to bear; hence, fa y,,^^.,, L. 

rents; yeivd/xsvrij a mother. 

jW** y«*™-, to fe,™ .- (i r. y,^, fuf . ^ p _ ?y _ 

pm, .,*-,,«, R. from TNOQ; 2 aor. fyrf^ from **,,, sub. 
y*-, opt y„>r„„, imper. yvSBi, inf. y„<o rat , part, yraft. 

A. 
at,, to learn : (1 R. Sas-, 2 <?«-, 3 <>«-,) f ut . ,.„„, &c . R . from AAEQ 

by epenth. from M- ; whence p. *&«, (§ M1 . 5.) 2 aor. p. ISaJ 

or act. Iron, M m , from <Sa M comes AW W , a „ d) by reduplication, 

titdatTKG), to teach. 
y«S to rfmde, to /^, to Mfaru, . (1 R. Sai . and ^ £ ^ 

trequently <H<r-,p. aioVwa, & c . R. from AAZQ 
*-, to burn : (1 R. ^., S ,,,., 3 v>) second perfect ^ 

its moods. a 

fr~, to Kfe .. (1 R. ^., 2 ^ fut ma> &c R- from AHKQ 2 aor< 

tSdKOV. 

V 6a„o>, to sleep (1 R. fo^., 8 Sip g^ f „ t ^^^ &c R _ from AAp _. 

t)bi2 ; 2 aor. iSapdov. 
kfe, to/ear .- (1 R. &*, 2 &«., 3 &,*., a l 30 2 A-, 3 &., from AIQ,) fut 

&.V-, p. «*««, or J« 0Mfa , 2 perf. «&,,j<f ; also from A13, 



154 LIST OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117. 

2 aor. Wcov,2perf. &*<#, (poetice SrtSia,) pi. Miapev, by syncope, ft 
<V> &c. and imper. tf* i0i, with a present sense, to fear ; the 
middle ftojaoi, with its derivatives SeSiaKo^ai, tdiwopai, &c. have 
an active signification, "to frighten" 
feirf* *fc»*i, to jA«i> : (I R. *«*,) t Mfe &c. R. from AEIKQ ; Ionic 

AEKQ, hence 6efa, &c. 
Aeo/iai, to need : (1 R.&S-, from AEE'OMAl3 fut. te^ai, &c R. In , 
the active voice it is used impersonally; as, Set, hnaei, &c. See 
Impersonal Verbs, § 114. 
A.*««nto>, to toac/i .- (1 R. Si6d x - and <fc«W-,) f. <M*I", (and Siiaariat*,) <fc- 

6i6a X a, &c R. §116. IX. 3. 
A«W*a>, to escape : (1 R. ^a-,) fut. Spaaoy, &c. R. from *p£a>, a regular 
verb in use ;) 2 aor. tSpnv, (from APHMI,) for which also stpav, 
-as, -a, &c. N. B. This verb is used in composition only. 
Aorfu, to iMMb.- (1 R. fa* and <5<k-,) f. <5o'|o>, &c. R. from AOKfl ;-also 

fut. (Jo^^o), &c. R. but less in use than the other forms. 
Avvafiai, lean : (1 R. Swd-,) like Ura^at, f. hvfi^at, &c R.from AY- 

NAOMAI ; 1 aor. pass. Itov&oBnv and iSwfidriv. 
Av'o>, <5uvg>, to encZcwe, to go into :(1R. <&«-,) fut. <W, #3wa, &c. R. ; 2 aor. 
£<W, from AYM1. 

E. 

'E<5o>, ?tr0o>, and fcrtfa,, to eat : (I R. tf*-, 2 1(5-, 3 It-, also 2 R. *ay- frorr! 
fiyw,) fut. 2&ra, p. pass. IStfeapai for ^fccr/mc ; 1 aor. pass 
^%0^ from tffu ; f. m. toopai and Mbv/uu ; 2perf. tfo, Attic* 
Witfa, p. a. ;;<Wa, (by change of vowel, for gfaca,) Attic, ffi\ 
<Wa, 2 aor. act. tyayov, from 0ayco ; ( £ v %ai is rather the presen 
used in the sense of the future.) 
•E0!Aw, Be\a>, BeXeuy, 'l wish : (1 R. 0fiAI-,) fut 0«Xi?<ru>, rfMXqffflp R. 
'E0o>, Jam toon* : only with epic writers; 2 perf. «Iw0a, Ionic *a>0a, in th 

same signification. 
"ElJn, to see, (1 R. if*-, effc-, 2 #-, 3 otf-,) an old verb, which, in th.j 
active voice, has only the 2 aor. sidov and Xdov, used as | 
substitute for the aorist of oo^co, to see— a verb which ha 
only the present oouw, the imperfect ojq&v, Attic Imq&v, an* 
the perfect iwnaxa, pass. l^qapai^ the other parts beinj 
made up from o/i-rouca, and sitfw, as here. In the middl j 
and passive, ei&to has the present Mopat, the imperfec 
■iftpq*, 1 aor. rtouMVi ^nouurjv,) like the Latin vuferj 
meaning to oe seen, to seem, to appear, to resemble, 
Eitopviv, or l*£pqv 9 the 2 aor. mid. is also used in a:i 
active sense, particularly by the Attics, in the impera 
tive idov, iSeo$e, as an interjection, see, lo, behold. 

Of this verb the 2d perfect olSa, strictly / have seen 
perceived, or comprehended, is never used as a perfect, bu j 



§ 117. LIST OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 155 

only as a present, meaning / know, having the pluperfect 
ijSsn; as an imperfect I knew, and the future m. sioopai, 
rarely ddi^ou), I shall knoio, or experience. The other 
parts, viz. the aorists and perf. are supplied from 
ytyvwoy.u). — For the parts of olda, see § 112, IX. 
EIKS2, I resemble, I seem, (1 R. six-, 2 IK-, 3 oiy.-,) is used only in 
the 2 perf. olxa, Ionic totxa, Attic slxa, employed as a 
present in the sense of / am like, I seem, I resemble. Inf. 
tixhai, part, slxdog, via, vg. Hence the adverb slxorojg. 
From this verb comes el'oxw and I'oxw, to compare. 
El'Xw and tl'XXoj, to roll up, press together, more commonly dttw or 
etXttx), (1 R. Elk-, siXs-, or £i/€-,) F. ')[ao}, &c. .1 Aor. inf. 
tXoat, HXaaty part. sXoag. Perf. pass. ttXuai, 1 Aor. p. 
iaXijv, Inf. aXijvat, or aXijisvai, part, cdtig, all of which 
have sometimes the spiritus asper, and sometimes the 
spiritus lenis. 
Et/ii, J am: (1 R. £-,) from EG ; f. m. £<ro/><cu, imp. tji/. See § 112. I. 

But 
E7[ii, I go : comes from 10, f. m. efoopai, p. £?«, Attice Jji'a. See § 112. II. 
EIIIQ or EIIQ, to. say : used only in the aorists ; 1 aor. etna, 2 efaov, 1 aor. 
mid. eiit&priv. The initial el- is retained through all the moods. 
Compounds used by the poets are eveirco, Ivzg-ku, hic-noy. The 
other parts are supplied from epa), which see. 
EtXavvo), to drive: (1 R. e\d-,) fut. iXdaw, p. nXaica, &c. R. from e\do), also 
in use. The Attic future is e\<5, e\ag, l\a, &c, for iXdaa, Au- 
aeig, &C. 
Ev66(t), to shake, to agitate: (R. hod-, )2perf.*?vo0a, Attic hrjvoda : used chief- 
ly in compounds ; as, irap-evfivodsv, dv-nvoBcv, &c. 
'■•Ewiyu, to clothe : (1 R. ?-,) fut. £o-o>; p. pass, a/vat, and also eo-juat, from 
E12 ; djjcbavvvni has Attice dpupiu) for df/fieacd ; dn<pidgoi and d/^iV/ccj 
are rare forms of the same word. 
'Erw, see £t7T&). 

'E7tg>, £o 6e actively employed : (1 R. eV-, 2 an--,) mid, sTropon, to'folloio, fut. 
eipofxai, has the 2 aor. eWov and icnronrjv, as if from £ITE£2. See 
£%w; to be found chiefly in compounds. 
Eptdaivbi, to contend : (1 R. iptSe-,) fut. epiSway, &c. from EPIAE&, per 

epenth. fromEPIAQ : hence ipigw, s. s. fut. epicoy, &c. Reg. 
Kpofxai, see epo). 

Epfxo, to go away : (1 R. ippe-,) f. kppriow, &c. R. from EPPEO. 
Epvdaivo), to make red : (1 R. hpvde- and cprufl-,) fut. ipvOficw, &c. (R. from 

EPY6E&,) and also £pevcra>, as if from EPEYGS2. 
■Lp^Ofxat, to go : (1 R. i\ev9-, 2 £Av0-, 3 i\vQ-,} fut. £A£i5o-o/>«;u,2perf. JJAvfla, 
Attice £\fi\vda, from EAEY0Q ; whence also 2 aor. act. JjX0o»>, 
by syncope for HAY0ON. In some tenses e7jxi is more in use 
than ipxofxau 

I) 



156 MST OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117. 

•EP8, by metathesis psa>, and by epenth. boio> ; also rfpto, by ep. et>«», from 
one or other of which the tenses in use are regularly formed; 
(1 R. h- t p*-, and «p*-, 2. ip-,) thus, from ?pu, 1 aor. m. ftp*^, 
from ^o>, fut #<rai, and 1 aor. p. tfftdnv and l^iOm ; from 
cp£0), fut. Ipfov, p. e?p*K«, p. pass, sip* pat, fut. *p<3, 2. a. m. 
f,p6[xriv; and probably from efplw, comes the fut. elpfic^au 

Epopat, in the sense of to asfc, occurs chiefly as an aorist to ipmrfa. 

•E(T0tG) f to caf r used in the pres. and imp. for 1'Jw. See Uo>. 

EW«, to stoep : (I R. tiff-,) fat. rf**™, &c. R. from EYAEft, augments the 
initial vowel, thus, rfiSov ; so in compounds, Kadnviov, &c. 

Efctoo,, tojind: (1 R. i**, 2 rip-,) f •*!*■*. &c ' R ' from EYPEQ > b ? 
epenth. from EYP8 ; whence a form of the 1 aor. m. dpa^p. 

'Eyda^at and dne X dd V opai, I am haled : (1 R. * X 0I-,) fut. £ X 0^o/*ai, perf. p. 
1 x Qn\M, R - from *X 0£ > a '» from f X 0w > poetic, and used only in 
the present. 

'Eva, to have ; (1 R. f X -, and ff tf-, 2 , x -,) fut. Ife (with the aspirate,) or 
o-x^c, p. IV x **a, &c. R. from SKE12, also <r X£ '0o>. This verb has 
another form of the present and imperf. lV x w and l'o- X oi/, in the 
sense of to hold, which has the future <j X fi™, &c« J s0 als0 ff X l0w ? 
£ v cr X £0oi/. In the compounds observe the following varieties : 
viz. **x», (for which also dvaa X ^o>) in the middle has a double 
augment in the imperf. and 2 aor, nveix 6 W v * to**XfW : a /" r ^ w ' 
to "enclose, has f. d^co, 2 aor. fym*x ov ; mid. d^iw^ or 
dfxmcx^sofxai, to wear ; fut. d^opat, 2 aor. fymaxtyw 5 *«•*- 
l/co/ioc, to promise, fut. viroaxv™!*" 1 * &c# R * 

•Eyo,, to coo/c : (1 R. !#*-,) fa. e^o,, &c Reg. from E^Eft. 
Eft, to pfocc : (1 R- h) Defective, 1. a. efra, 1 f. m. sUopat, 1 a. m. wa^v. 
The derivatives from this root are, 1. t^ai, I sit, (perf. for elpai.) 
§ 112. VI. ; 2 egopai, to set down, (whence ?£a,and >ca0^w, R.) ; 
3. ivvvfu, to clothe; and, 4. Iqu, to send, flaw, a/ca, R. 

Z. 

Zda>, to M»: (1 R. #h) f- m. #«*« 5 2 aor « ^> as if from ? HM * B 
See § 98. 06s. 2. To supply the defective parts of this verb, 

tenses are borrowed from /?tdo>. 
Zevyrio and ffrfynpc, to join : (1 R. £*y-, 2. ?t»y-,) f. frffo &c. R. from 

ZEYrft, 2 a. p. egvynv. 
Zonrf*, l&mpt to gird : (1 R. £5-,) f. #*«», &c R. from £ 'eu. 

H. 
H/Hww, to o«ain */ie age of puberty : (1 R. W*-,) f. ^™, &c- «- fron 

•H*», <o nsMten, <0 pieasc: (1 R. «£,) f. <S™, &c. R- ■• ■• as W&w 

which see. 
T H/*ai, co sit : see Eft, and § 112. VI. 



§ 117. LIST OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 157 

>H hl , by Aphw™ ftr *rf, I say: likewise h », f or ^ £> . See 

e. 

t)£W. See I0e\o>. 

GHIIS2, (Poetic) to Aa ^, rfj (, R . ^ , fe-JSperf.^Saor. ire, 

■ f», by metathesis for M.™,, of which the part, ft,™ is i„ use 
e,ya ra , to S .W;>e»: (, R. ^ f ^ ^ R _ ^ ? _ ^ 

e, m ™ to to»oA • ( R. ,, r>) n er|M> &c . R froni 2 aor> 

e^ M ,to^.- (E.^ and 6w_, 2( w_), £ m . ^ * 

and by syncope, ,«„«, whence the common forms, H6 m ^ 
r«toto„, rdhfau, &c. (§ 101. 5.) ; fromGANfi comes 2 f. m &,- 
^>,, and 2 aor. a . IW Prom the p . a . ^^ come ^ ^ 
present „fl„ 4l(Mj 1 f. Tc6 ^o,. Parts also occur as if from a form 
in -,«, ; thus, Ti6va8i t rsBvainv, as if from rtdnai. 

Oo^a,, 66 pm ,u, <^, M , to leap , (1 R. $ o pl ., 2 Bop.,) f. fe*^ &c . R. from 
Co,o£w, 1. m. Bopotyai, 2 aor. act. It 



(30f. 
I. 



i j£~. *V«, to establish : (1 R. ltpS . t) f rom Ho , W) f y & 

I*-** to .* - ( , R ^ and fe) , fjjL ^ &c _ R from _ and 

ste'EP ? " and IQ " In Hke manner M9 '^ ; "'' ""*- &C - 
; 'Up', to go : pres. m. Ufiat. See §112. Ill 

■y, f^^j f. *w, P . ^ i aor . |M) 2 aor . h> from Ea 

'I***,, &r*fc W to come .- (R. fc.,) f rQm ? , M> s> „, R whence (hey ^ £ 
m. ffo^ai, perf. pass. l' y/a <j,, 2 aor. \«6y. nv . 

^" ^^} X ^^ £ ***". &c - R-fiomW.; whence 

I 1 AHMI, of which some parts occur in Homer. 

l-nrrafiat. See Trirofxai, 

**<, to W, m. r^ai, used in the singular number bv Doric writers ' 

only. See etSw. 
I 'I^w. See £ X w. 

K. 
! KAZQ, KAAQ, KAAEO, to c««« to ,W • (1 R. ^j fut . K AAH2Q 
p .p. f. KeKaSfjvofxcu, Horn. 
Kai^at, to sit : ( rar4 and ?^a,, 1 R. If, 2 «.,) fut . rafea „ s j aor> 

iKdOiarOrjv. r ' 

K*A.,«, «o orrfer .- (1 R. ««.,) f. ^^ &c . R from ^ 

Jle^a«, £o he ; see § 112. VII. 

Kr P a,™, ^ B/1() < mix : (1 R ^j fut Kcp ,^ &e Reg _ from 

Sometimes it inserts „ before -0,™^, in 1 f. pass, sometime,, 

not. Hence also „,„&», from which K t Pmh s. s. imper. K i mn , 

I for tip^o^i, . ' 

14 



158 LIST OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. §117. 

Kc/xfaiVa), to male gain : (1 R. KspSaiv-, and KepSa-,*) f. KspSavaj and Keptifiaco ; 

poi'f. K£KepSr]Ka. 
Ki^avo), to overtake: (1 R. ki^s-, 2 *i%-,) f. /a^o-a), &c. R. from ki^em ; 

2 aor. Iki%oV) and iKi^rjv, from KIXHMI. 
TZLiXpnpi, to lend : (1 R. %p<*-,) fut. xpfa"* & c - &• from %pao>. 
KXa£o, Jo cry aloud: (1 R. *Xayy-, 3 /cA^y-,) f. K\ay£h>, &e. R. from *X£y- 

yw;2perf.K£/cX/7ya, as if from K-Xr^w. 
KX6a>, 2o /tear : (1 R. *Xv-,) Reg. except the imperative pres. *Xi50i, as if from 

KAYMI. 
~K.opewvo)j KopEvwftif to satisfy : (1 R. icops-,') f. Kopso-o) and xopfioc*, &.c. R. 

from Kopsa). 
Kpa^o), /o crow; : ( 1 R. *rpay-,) f. ^fw, &c. R. exc. imper. perf. KSKpax^u 
Kpenavvvo), Kpefidvvviiiy and /cpjfyu/^i, to hang : (1 R. Kjo^a-,) f. Kps/jdacj, &c. 

fc from KPEMAG. perf. p. y.Qluauai with the augment. 
Krefro), £o A;i//: (1 R. ktsiv-, 2 nrrav , 3 K-ro*>-,) fut. Kww. &c. R. ; 2 aor 

exravov, and cAcriyv from K.THMI. 
KvXci/du, to roll: (1 R. kvXi-,) fut. kuXutg), &c. R. from xrvXta, s. s. 
Kvwco, fo Zeiss ; (R. *w£-, and ru-,) fut. KvvfjeUf &c. R. ; also /cvo-ca, &c. R. 

from Kvw, 

A. 

Aay^ai/o), Jo receive by lot: (1 R. Xj^-, 2 Xa;^-, 3 Xoy^-,) f. X*?ffc>, &c. R. 

from AHXS2. 2 aor. I'Xa^oi/, perf. XlXoy^a. § 101. 5. 
Aa/itfai/cj, to take : (1 R. Xr?6-, 2Xa£-, 3 X>7^-.) f. m. X^o/^ai, p. tWvfpa, &c. R. 

from AHB12. Ionic perf. XeXaSrjxa ; likewise f. Xafxxpopa^ &c. 

R. as if from AAMB&2. Also of the same signification, — 
Aa^co, Xa^uco, and XaPv/jit. 
Aav9avu, to be hid : (1 R. X>70-, 2 Xa0-, 3 Xi}0-,) f. Xfaw, &c. R. from Xr)0a> ; 

in the middle voice, — 
Aavdavofxai, to forget : f. \f\ao\xai, &c. from the same. 
Af£co, Jo /wss : (1 R. Xfyy-,) f. Xfy|co, &c. R. from \iyyw, s. s. 
Aovaiy to wash: (1 R. Xow-,) in the Attic dialect generally omits by syncope 

the short vowel after -ov- ; thus, eXov, cXov/icv, Xofyicu, Xoi;<r0ac, &c. 

for eXoue, eXovopcv, Xovofjiai, Xov£a-0a(, &C. 
Aov£o), in some of its tenses occurs in Homer. 

M. 
Mai/0di/a>, to learn : (1 R. /ia0£-, 2 /ia0-,) fut. fxadfioofiai, p. /i£^d0^a, &c. R. 

from M AGEQ ; 2 aor. c^odoi;. 
Mo^o/zat, to fight : (1 R. /*a%£-, 2 jua^;*,) fut. /^a^o-o/icu and ^a^fcauu, &c. 

R. from MAXEOMAI. 
M£0u<™&), fo intoxicate : (1 R. //£0v-,) f. pedvaca, &c, from /u£0veo, s. s. 
MtXw, fo care for : (1 R. peXS-, 2 /*cX-, 3 /*i?X-,) 1 f. peXfjact, from MEAEQ. 

2 aor, i[xt\ov, perf.pl/49Xa. 
MfXXw, t*o oe afeot^ £o o« : (1 R. pcXXl-,) f, pcXXr/crw, &c. R. from /icXXIw. 



§ 117. LIST OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 159 

h/lrjxaojjLai, to bleat : (1 R. [xrjKa.-, 2 /^a*-, 3 p-TjK-,) f. [x-nKdaojiai, &C. R. (//flxa- 
£a>, s. s.) 2 aor £/mAcoj/,2perf.p£/i77xa, from MHK12. 

Mtyi/va), jjLiyvvf.il, [xicrycj, to mix : (1R. /**/->) f« /^ w > & c - &• from /nyw ; 

2 aor. fyuyiiv from MirHMI. 
Mt//v)}o-/c&), £<? remember : (1 R. /*v<x-,) fut. /^o-a>, &c. R. from paw. 
Mopyj/va), /jLOpyvvfxi, to wipe off: (I R. fiopy-,) f. pp|a>, &c. from MOPr&. 

N. 
Nai'co, neut. fo dwell: (1 R. va-,) f. i/dVa>, &c. R. from vaco, active, to cause 

to dwell. 
Nt£a>, to wash : (1 R. rfcr-,) f. viipa, &c. R. from vitttcj, s. s. 

O. 
r O£a> ; to smell : (1 R. d<J-, and d£<>, 2 dj-, 3 d<5-,) f. 6W, R. also dgsao) and 

d^qo-o> 3 p. ajgriica, &c R. from OZE12,2perf.c5<k; with the Attic 

reduplication oSwSa. 
Oiyvva), oXyvvpi, to open : (1 R. oiy-,) f. ot'£a>, &c. R. from oXyoi. See aVoi- 

yod. 
OlSaivo), olSdvo), ol6iaKoi y to sioell : (I R. olSi-,) f. oldfjato, &c. R. from oldeu, 

Th. s. s. 
Oiofxai and oXp.at, to think: (1 R. oie-,) f. ol^cru^ai, &c. R. from oleopai', oto>, 

the active form, is retained in some dialects. 
Ot^o/^at, to go : (1 R. <u%£*-,) f. olxwopai, p. w^uai, R. as if from OIXEO- 

MAI. 
Oi^o), s. s. in the active form ; (1 R. oixo-,) f. ot^wo-o), p. w;£a>Ka, as if from 

Ol^OO). 

'0\i<j9aiv(o, dXiardavQ), to glide : (1 R. dXiaOe-,) f. 6\iodrj<ro), &c. R. from 6\w 

0£&>, s. s. 
'OXXrJco, 6'AAu/u, /# destroy : (1 R. dXf-, 2 oX-, 3 oX-,) f. dXeffco, &c. R. from 

OAEO ; fut. a. dX«, m. oXovjiai, 2 aor. a>Xo/^i/, p. co'Xa, Attic© 

6'XcjXa. Other forms are 
'OXXw, 6\£ko), dAfioxa). 
'O/^ucj, Sjxwjjh, £o swear : (1 R. d//d-, 2 d//-, from OMQ,) f. d/-io<rw, &c. R. 

from OMOS2, commonly with the reduplication in the perfect ; 
f. m. dfxovfxaL from OM12. 
'Oppyww, duopyvvfAi, to wipe off : (1 R. d^opy-,} f. <fyidp|a>, &c. R. s. s. as, 

/jLopyvvojj which see. 
9 Ovri[xt, dvivrijjit, to help : (1 R. dva-,) f. dvfiao), &c. R. from ONAQ. 
'Opixaivo), to rush : (1 R. bp^a-,) f. opu/faoj, &c. R. from bpfxdco, s. s. 
'Opvvca, Spvvfxi, to excite : (R. dp-,) f. %<ro>, (§ 101. 4. (6.) ) from OPQ ; f. 

dpoj from op<x),2j)erf*6paipa ; hence a new present, 6'po-o>, s. s. and 

also dpcupa). 
'Oappaivopai, to smell : (1 R. 6o<ppaiv- and d<7<£pa-,) fut. dacppavovfxai, R. and 

datppfKTOfxat, &c. R. from OIi$PEOMi\.I, by epenth. from &r£po- 

/-icu, from which coer^prf/^y ; hence also d<r<ppaw, and doppaoixai, s. g 



160 LIST OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117 

Oorda), ovri'igco, ovra<r<o), OYTHMI, to hit, to WOUnd : (1 R. ovrd-,) f. ovrd- 
ffco, £cc. R. from ovrdoi, infin. ovrdfxevat, Hum. for ovrdvai. 

'O^fXw, o(f>\(i), dipXivKavo), to owe: viz. mono), punishment, i. e. to be 
guilty : (1 R. otyeiXe-, and dcp\c-, 2. d(pe\-,) 1 f. dcpaMau) and d<p- 
Xfiaoj, &c. R. from 6<pei\eo) and (tyXcw ; 2 aor. dfyfXov, used only 
in the expression of a wish ; thus, eW cfyeXov, that I, eW oj<pe- 
Xes , that thou, &e. 

n. 

LTao-^o), £o si^cr ? (1 R. irivQ-, seldom iraQi-, 2. itad~, 3. 7roi/0-,) 1 f. m. Trtfaofxai, 
§ 6. 18.2perf.7r£7roi/0a ; both from IIEN90 ; 2 aor. iiraOov, also 
fat. iradriao, &c. R. from IIA0EG. * 

ncco-a), £o digest : (I R. ir&r-,) f. 7m//a>, &C. R. from 7T£rrrw, s. s. 

TLeravvvoi, ireravvvfxi, to expand : (1 R. nerd-,) 1 f. ireTaao), R. from rarcta), exc. 
p. p. iriirrafxai, which is from the contracted form 7rrd&>. An- 
other form is 

YliTvdoi and mrvrifjn, S. S. 

TitTOfjiai, TreTCifAai, 7rerdoixai, to fly ± (1 R. 7r£ra-,) f. -rrerfiaoixai, &c. R. from 
Kerdofxai ; 2 aor. £7rr>?i> from "irrijpi / also, p. p. t: err orrj fiat from 
TTOTdojxai ; by syncope iTrerofxriv becomes eirTopriv, and so of other 
tenses. 

II??ywa>, Trfiyvvjxi, fo fasten ; (1 R. 7rj?y-, 2 7ray-, 3 injy-,) f. fftffw, &c. R. 
from LTHXQ ; 2perf.7r£7r^ya, 2 aor. pass, eirdyrjv. 

Hi\vdoi, 7riXi/^t, /o approach : (1 R. wcAaJ-,) takes its tenses from ireXdgo), s. s. 

IL/i7rXdi/o> and mim\rini,tofill : (1 R. 7rA»]0", or 7rAd-,) f. 7rAr?<rw, &C. R. from 

LTAAG or 7rXr?0a>. When in composition \x comes before the 

initial n in this word, it is omitted before 7rX ; as, ijAiriviXriiu ; so 

also in 
JKjAirpripi, to burn: (1 R. 7rpj?0-,) f. irpfjaw, &c. R. from npfidoi. 
Ulvw, to drink : (1 R. ir6- % 2. tti-,) fut. ttwo-co, &c. R. from IIOQ ; 2 aor. 
Irctov from ttico Th. ; imperat. commonly nlOi, sometimes me; 

fut. m. monat, probably the present used in the future sense ; or 

by elision of a for iriao^ai ; moviiai is also found. From this 

theme also comes 
ftlcrfara, to cause to drink : (1 R. rri-,) f. 7r«ra>, &c. R. from mat. 
UnrpdcTKU), to sell : (1 R. npd-,) f. irpdcot, &c. R. from IIPA12, probably 

from 7T£pda), /o transfer. 
LTfrrrw, Attic and Poetic TTirj/co, to fall : (1 R. ttet-, and Trrtf-, 2. tcot-, from 

LTELE12,) f. 7reoo), from the ancient LTET12 ; and irrwaw, p. 

TTenTWKa from IITOO ; 2 aor. eircaov, f. m. ireaov/xat, as if from 

LTEEEO. 
IlXd^o), fo /earf astray: (1 R. zrXdyy-, 2. TrXay-,) f. 7rXc*y|a>, &c. R. from 

7rXdyya> ; 2 aor. eVX iyo»'. 
IlX^aco, £o strike: (1 R. rrA»5y-, 2. TrX/yy- for 7rXay-,) f. 7rX/?|a>, &C R. exc. 

2 aor. p. InXfiyTiv ; compounds regular throughout. 



§ 117. LIST OF TRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 161 

ILvvQdvopai, to learn by inquiry : (1 R. ttevB-, 2. irvd-,) f. irevaopat, (poetic 

rrevdopai,) &c. R. from irsvQoi ; 2 aor. m. hnvBopriv, perf. pass. 

izi-nvcpai. % 

P. 
Pc£a>, spJco, EPrO, to do: (1 R. ply-, and %-, 3 tyy-, from 2 'APr-,) f. 

/9£|o) and i'pfa, &c. R.2perf eopya. 
Pea), to flow : ( 1 R. pn5-, and pi>£-,) f. pevao) and pvfiaoi, p. sppvrjKa, &C. R. 

from ptco, 2 aor. pass, eppvrjv. 
'Frjyvvco, pijyvvp.1, to break : (1 R. /5>}y-, 2 pay-, 3 puy-, irreg.) f. /5>7£<o, &c. 

R. from p/affw, (i. e. PHXO,) s. s.2perf.£^u>ya, 2 aor, pass. 

eppcoyqv. 
'Pwi/vuco, pcZwvjAi, to strengthen : (1 R. /5d-,) f. /Swcco, &c. R. from POG. 

s. 

S^si/i/iiw, aSevvvpu, to extinguish : (1 R. o-tfs-,) f. cSsou, &c. R. from 

. o-tfeco ; also p. eaSrjKa, 2 aor. eaSrju, from SBHMI. 
£*t£aj/j/'iico, aneSavvvpi, CKiSvaa), oKiSvrjpLi, to scatter : (1 R. a>cfJa-,) f. OKecaaa), 

&c R. from cr/tfdaaj. 
S/aXXai, £o dry up : (1 R. <x>c£X-, and oxaXfi-,) f. <tke\go, R. also o-Ka\f\ao3, p. 

saxXriKay (by syncope for IffKaXrjKa), 1 aor. £<ri<r]\a, 2 aor. ecr/cX^y, 

from SKAHMI. 
Epia>, £o I0ipe : (1 R. ff^d-, and c/**?;£-,) f. (rpiriaco, &C. p. saptrj^a, from 

ff//J7^CJ, S. S. 

E^-ej/Jcj, £o maA;e a libation : (1 R. o-7r£i/<5-,) f. airucroi, &c. R. § 6. 18. 
Eropsyyua), ffropivvvpt, to Spread: (1 R. crops-,} f. cropEGU), &C. R. from 

HTOPE&. 

Erjocoi/n5(o, arpdovvvpi, to Spread : (1 R. orpd-,) f. <rrpc5<ra>, &C. R. from LTPOS2. 

S^gii/. See £%w. 

Lw^oj, to save: (1 R. <ra><$-, or aco-,) f. o-aJaw, &c. R. exc. 1 aor. pass. £c&>- 

0iji/ instead of EctoaOnv. 

T. 
TaXdo>, £o £ear : (1 R. rXa-,) f. rXijaw, &c. Reg. from the syncopated form 

rXdcx), s. s. ; 2 aor. et\tiv, from r\rjpt» 
Tc/zi/w, fo cue : (1 R. r£/x-, also rpd-, and rpfjy-, 2 ra/j-, 3 ro/*-,) Reg. also f. 

rpfiaoj and rpfi^o), from r//dcj and Tpf\yu>; 2 aor. sTaptov and 

irfinvov , — sometimes lrzpov % 
Ti/crw, fo freor; (1 R. re*-, 2 rs*-, 3 tok-,) f. rtfa, &c. R. from TEK12 • 

2 aor. er£»cov,2perf.r£ro^a. 
Ti'vco, rivvvoi, Tivvvpt, to expiate : (1 R. ri-,) f. ricrco, &C. R. from ria>, to 

honour. 
Tirpdcu, rirpaivcx), rirpnpi, to bore: (1 R. ^d-,) f. rpfiaoi, &C. R. from rf>dw. 
Ttrpojo-K-w, to wound : (1 R. rpd-,) f. rpwo-cj, &C. R. from rpooi. 
Tpexco, to run : (1 R. Op^X", and Soaps-, 2 Soap-,) f. 0f>££&>, p. SsSpdprjKa, 

&c. R. from APAME12 ; 2 aor. sSpapov, f. m. Spapovpai. 
14* 



162 LIST OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117. 

Tuy^ai/o), to be, to obtain : (1 R. ru^e-, and rri?^-, 2 ru^-,) f. tv^o-o), &:c. 
R. from TYXEQ ; 2 aor. etvx<>v ; fut. m. revf-opai from reu^o). 
iVtfte. This verb must be carefully distinguished from the regu- 
lar verb. — 

Tri5%o>, to prepare : f. tev^cj, &c. R. 

Y. 

'Yirtcrxveonai, to promise : (from vtto, and <r%eco,) f. viroaxn^^ai, &c. R. 
from YIIOEXEOM AI. See £ v X o>. 

$. 
^ayojuat, pres. m. to eat: (1 R. (pay-,) also the future for (payovfiai, in the 

N. T. and later writers by the same anomaly as Uofxai and nt- 

opai ; 2 aor. scpayov. The rest of the tenses are formed from 

ecrdico. See edio. 
<&a(TKco. See ^^ui. 
<I>f{9cd, to bear: used in the pres. and imperf. (1 R. oi-, hU-, and ci/sy/c-, 

2 ivey K -, 3 frox-,J f. oiffo), (from 0112), p. HNEXA, &e. R. from 

ENEK£2 ; also, 1 f. pass, oiad'fiorofxat ; 1 aor. act. nvsyKa for 

ljvsyta, from EN ETK 12, Attice commonly f/m/ca, &c. ; 2 aor. 

r\vzyKov, from the same ;2perf.Wx a from ENEX12. 
<&i?/*t, to say : (1 R. fx-,) 1 f. (pi)™ ; 2 aor c^v. See § 112. VIII. 
<t>ddv(x), to come before, to anticipate • (1 R. (pOd-,) f. (pdaaco or (pQfjaco, &c. R. 

from $9A&2, 2 aor. tydqv from 00ity*i. 
<&0ii/o), £o corrupt, io fall: (1 R. 00i-,) f. pflurw, &c. R. from <p9io), s. s. ; 

other forms are 
QdicrBa), <p9iv£u, and (pOivvdu, used in the pres. and imperf. 
Qpayvvoj, <ppdyvv^i x to enclose : (1 R. fpdy-,) f. <ppdfa, &c. R. from $PAr£2, 

same as <ppda<joj, s. s. 
$v£o.>, to flee, to put to flight : (1 R. (pvy-,) f. $v£w, &c. R. But2perf.rr£- 

^u£a, formed immediately from the present. Other kindred 

forms are 
&vyu and peuyco, R. and it has the derivatives <pvgdui and yvgrmi. 
$>vu, to beget : (1 R. <pv-,) f. ^wrw, 1 aor. sywa. But the perf. rrtyvKOr 

and aor. 2. epui/, have a passive signification, to be begotten, to be % 

to become., 
fyvonai and <pvaofxai, have the same meaning and the same root. 

X. 

Xii^w, xavSdi/G), to recede, to stand open, to contain : (1 R. %«<?-,) fut. %a<ro), 
&c. R. from XAAQ, (s. s. with KAZS2, which see). 2 aor. 
l-^aiov and KiKaSou, 2 perf. Kt-^a^a and K^ai/Ja; derivatives and 
varieties of form are numerous, for which see Donnegan's Lex. 
on the word. 

Xcupo), torejoice : (1 R. %aip-, and %aipe-, 2 %ap-,) f. %apc3, &c. R. Also f. 
xaipfi<To), &c. R. from XAIPEQ ; 2 aor. p. exwW' 



§ 118, 119. INDECLINABLE WORDS OR PARTICLES. 163 

XatVco, %a3vc«, ^acvca^a), to gape or yawn : (1 R. %atV-,) f. %avw, &c.R.from 
^atVco, a derivative from XA£2 ; from which also ko£o) and x^ * > 
which see above. 

Xfio), to pour out: (1 R. %su-,) f. %«ww, &c. R. 1 aor. s^va and £%sa, (by 
elision for e^eva-a,) hence imperative x^ ov i X £ * TW i &- Co infinitive 
X iau 

Xf>aw. This verb has five different forms with as many different significa- 
tions : Root of all %pa-. 

1. %f>aw, to give an oracular response : Regular. 

2. Kixprj[jii , to lend : like eor??//i. 

3. xp/7, it is necessary : partly like verbs in fit, (see impers. verbs, § 114.) 

4. xpaonai, to use : in the contracted tenses takes /j for «, § 98. Obs. 2. 

5. d-To^pr], it suffices: pi. d7ro^pd5o-ti/, inf. G7ry^p7ji', &c. 

Xpcoyniaj, xpwvvviii) to colour : (1 R. £od-,) f. ^pcocw, &.c. R. p. pass. 

XcowiJco, xtovvvpi, to heap, to dam : (1 R. %o-,) f. x<£<r<y, &c R. from %&j, 
S. S. peif. pass, Ke^ajcyxat. 

•Qflew, to push : (1 R.&>0-, and&Oe-,) has. the syllabic augment throughout ; 
thus, imp. IcoQovv, f. dxrto, and didfieu, Regular from both; 1 f 
p. oiadria-Ofxai. 



§ 118. INDECLINABLE WORDS OR PARTICLES. 

The Indeclinable parts of speech, sometimes denominated 
Particles, are those which suffer no change of form by inflec- 
tion. They are the Adverb (which includes the Interjection) 
the Preposition aod the Conjunction. 

THE ADVERB, 

An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an ad- 
jective or another adverb^ to modify or denote 
some circumstance respecting it. 

Adverbs may be considered in respect of Signification, 
Derivation and Comparison. 



§ 119. OF THE SIGNIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

In respect of signification, adverbs may be arranged in 
Greek as they are in Latin and other languages, under the 
following heads : 



164 



OF THE SIGNIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 



§ 119, 



1. Adverbs of Place ; comprehending those which signify, 

1st. Rest in a place. These generally end in 61, <n, ov 9 
r\, ot, %0V) %rj ; as, dygodi, in the Jield. 

2d. Motion from a place. These generally end in -Qbv 
or -Ob ; as, uyoodev, from the field. 

3d. Motion to a place. These generally end in ds, as, 
£b ; as, uvQovdB, to the field. § 120. II. 6. 

4th. Motion through or by a place. These are gener- 
ally feminine adjectives in the dative singular, having 
6<Sc2> understood ; as, dllrj, by another way. 

2. Adverbs of Time ; as, vvv, now ; Tore, then ; nozi, 'some- 
times, &c. 

3. Adverbs of Quant Ay; noaor, how much; nolv, much; 
6liyov, a little, &c. 

4. Adverbs of Quality ; these end in (og ; in a and r k 
(which are properly datives of the first declension) ; also 
in 7], i, bi, dov, drjv, axv, and |. 

5. Adverbs of Manner ; (viz. of action or condition ,) in- 
cluding those which express exhortation, affirmation, ne- 
gation, granting, forbidding, interrogation, doubt, &c. 

6. Adverbs of Relation ; or such as express circum- 
stances of comparison, resemblance, order, assemblage, 
separation, &c. 

7. Adverbs of Exclamation ; in other languages usually 
denominated Interjections. (See Obs. 2.) 



observations. 



Obs. 1. Some adverbs have such an affinity, that begin- 
ning with a vowel they are indefinites ; with n, interroga- 
tives ; with t, redditives or responsives, as follows : 



INDEFINITE. 

, „ ( which way. | ~ 
ri f 07TJ7, ^ ^ what means. I 71 ^ 
( how far. i % 

r» (fur w hat reason. \ 
ore, ottotc, r\vixa, w hen. 
bBcv, ottoQcv, whence. 
60i, where. 
b<rov, how much. 
oJov, after what manner. 
[ht&kis, how often. 



INTERROGATIVE. 

which way ? 

by what tneans ? 
J how far ? 
° J> ( for what reason ? 
ndrc, -nfivixa, when 1 
noOev, whence ? 
TTodi, id here ? 
ttogov, how much ? 
■noTov, after what manner ? 
noaaxis, how often ? 



REDDITIVE. 

rfiSs or ( this way, or 
TavTy, ( by this means. 



(so far. 

■' is 



for thai reason. 
tote, TfiviKa, then. 
toBsv, thence. 
toBi, there. 

Toaov, SO much. 

tolov, after that manner, 
TotraKis, so often. 



§ 120. FORMATION AND DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 165 

Obs. 2. Under adverbs in Greek are classed those particles 
of exclamation wh'.ch express some suddea emotion of the 
mind, and are, in the grammars of most other languages, de- 
nominated Interjections. The most common of these are the 
following, which express 

Rejoicing ; as, loi), id). Condemning; as, &, (pev. 

Grieving; as, lov, d) and &. Admiring ; as, &, #«6W, 7ta7rce/ 

Laughing ; as, <2, a. Deriding ; as, lov, 6, o. 

Bewailing ; as, dt, 6/, Jd), oroTot. Q ailing; as, d>. 

Wishing ; as, f£, fi'0s. Enjoining silence ; as, ^, ^. 

Rejecting ; as, d/ra^e. Threatening ; as, otfa/. 

Praising ; as, £ ft*, ettys. Raging ; as, etfor. 



§ 120. OF THE FORMATION AND DERIVATION 
OF ADVERBS. 

A few adverbs in Greek are primitives; as, vvv y now; x a ~ 
pat, on the ground ; %0£g, yesterday. 

But the greater part are derivatives, and consist of 

I. Such words as are not strictly speaking adverbs, but are 
so denominated from being sometimes used in an adverbial 
sense, either by virtue of their signification, or by ellipsis for 
an adverbial phrase ; of these the following are examples : 

1. The accusative of neuter adjectives; as, ngmov, tottqw- 

iov ; 7TO(ar«, id Ttg&icc, jirst ; xd ixuXiotu., chiefly ; 6|t), 
sharply. 

2. The oblique cases of nouns and pronouns ; as, 

Gen. ouov, together; from ouog, united. 

ovdauov, never ; from ovdajubg^no one. 
Dat. otvxl(o y around, (i. e. in a circle ; ) from xvxlog, a circle. 

tcl/fi, swiftly, with swiftness ; from rd/og, swiftness. 
Ace. ty/ri^ and do/dj. (sup. Hard) from the beginning ; 
from do/7], the beginning. 

dlxrjv, as, like; from dixy, manner. 

3. Verbs are sometimes used as adverbs ; thus, 

The imperative; as, aye, VOi, tde, &c. 

The 2d aorist active ; as, yelov, focpEkov ; from 

The present optative of eljtil; viz. eisv. 



166 FORMATION AND DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. § 120. 

Obs. 1. To these may be added 

1st. nouns compounded with prepositions; as, tx nod&v, 

out of the way. 
2d. Prepositions united together ; as, naqex, abroad: 
3d. Prepositions joined with adverbs ; as, tneiTa, then. 

II. Such words as have undergone a change of form, and 
are used only in an adverbial sense. These are so numerous 
and varied in form and derivation, that a perfect classification 
cannot be given. The following, as being the most impor- 
tant, may be noticed : viz. 

f 

Adverbs in 

1. -&>£, express a circumstance of quality or manner, and 
are for the most part formed from adjectives by changing -og 
of the nominative or genitive into -cog ; as, cplltog from epilog ; 
ocoepgovcog from ococpgcov, gen. adxpoopog. 

2. -t, or -ei, express a circumstance of manner, and are 
generally formed from nouns ; as, av cupel, without bloodshed ; 
atio/eiat, with one's own hand, 

3. -tl and -ieu are formed from the verbal adjectives in -ibg 
and -jiog ; thus, dvopaoil, by name; dvidgml, without sweat- 
ing. So also those in -dqv, (the characteristic of the verb 
being changed when necessary, according to the laws of Eu- 
phony, § 6. 2.); thus, from ftarbg is formed fiadijv, by steps, 
(from @u(q) ; from avllriTtibg, ovlh\68i]v, collectively ; from 
xQvnrbg, xQvfidrjv, secretly, &c. Sometimes the termination 
-(xdrjp is added ; as, onogdd^v, scattered. 

4. .ivtl come from verbs in -t'Qco, derived from nouns sig- 
nifying a nation, party, or class, and signify after the manner, 
language, &c. of such nation, &c. ; as, 'Ellr/viail,- after the 
manner of the Greeks ; (xvdqaTtodiOTl, after the manner of men. 

5. -8ov and -rjdov are chiefly derived from nouns, and re- 
late chiefly to external form and character; as, dyslrjdop, in 
herds ; fiojqvdov, resembling grapes. 

Note. Tf derived from verbal adjectives they agree in signification with 
those in -3r}i> ; as, dvayavSov, openly. 

6. Adverbs denoting certain relations of place, are formed 
by the addition of certain syllables to the words from which 
they are derived ; viz. In a place is denoted by the termina- 
tions xH, oi, ov, rj, oi, x ov and x r l 5 from a place, by -Oev or 
-0e ; and to a place, by -de, -oe, and -t,e. 



§ 121, 122. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 167 

Exc. Adverbs of place, derived from prepositions, express 
the relations of in a place and to a place by the termination 
-W ; thus, 

In a place. To a place. From a place. 

avco, above, avco, upwards. avcodev, from above, (fromd^cc.) 
xar©, below, xdrw, downwards, xaicodev, from below, ( „ xara.) 



§ 121. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

1. Adverbs derived from adjectives compared by -Ttgog and 
-Tctwg, are compared by changing -og of these terminations 
into .we ; as, 

oocpcbg, aogpcoTcococ, oocpmajcog, from crocpbg. 

2. Adverbs derived from adjectives, compared by -Imv and 
-icTTog, commonly take the neuter singular of the comparative 
and neuter plural of the superlative for their comparative and 
superlative; thus, 

alo/gcbg, <W//oj>, ata'/ima, (from alo/gog.^ 

Note 1. This mode of comparison is also used, though more rarely, for 
those derived from adjectives compared by -repos and -raros; as, 

co<pcog, (TtxpooTepov, ao<pd)Tara. 

Note 2. The accusative neuter of adjectives, both singular and plural, is 
sometimes used adverbially in all the degrees. To the superlative degree 
the article is frequently prefixed ; as, rd n\elerTov, (sup. Kara.) 

3. Adverbs in -w, formed from prepositions, are compared 
by adding -isgoi and -tchoj; as, a/'to, dvcoTigco, avmaTco. So 
also prepositions in the sense of adverbs ; as, dzio, anmigo). 

Note. Some other adverbs imitate this mode of comparison ; as, eyyu?, 
iyyvTcpu), iyyvrarw ; yet as often otherwise; thus, COinp. eyyvrtpov, and ey 
yiov, superl. eyyivra. 



§ 122. INSEPARABLE ADVERBIAL PARTICLES. 

Certain particles, never used by themselves, but prefixed to 
words by composition, affect the signification of the words 
with which they are compounded, as follows : 

1. The particle a (which becomes av before a vowel) has 
three different significations : 



168 OF THE PREPOSITIONS. § 123. 

1st- It marks privation, (from avev, without;) as, &vv- 

doog, without water. 

2d. increase, (from ayav, much ;) as, at-ulog, muck 

wooded. 

3d. ■ union, (from com, together ;) as, cilo/o;, a con- 
sort. 

2. "_-/oi. got, ^?ou, figT, <5ci fri, A«, A/, and sometimes ?tj and 
re, increase the signification ; as, dt\lo;, manifest; aoldtjloc, 
very manifest, &c. 

3. Nr\ and vi generally express privation or negation ; as, 
vi\mo;, an infant, from v^ and £?rw, I speak ; but 

2<Lrc. iVrj sometimes increases the signification ; as, v-fr%v- 
to?, that flows in a full stream, from vr\ and /um. 

4. «^/ug expresses difficulty, trouble, or misfortune ; as, #ua- 
fievris, malevolent ; dvoTv/eM, T am unhappy. 

Note. The contrary of Svg is ev, (which is also found by itself.) It signi- 
fies well or with facility ; as, svixevhs, benevolent ; svrv^w, / am happy. 



$ 123. OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 

A Preposition is an indeclinable part of 
speech, which points out the relation of one 
thing to another, and always governs a certain 
case. 

1. The primary use of prepositions seems to have been to 
indicate the relation of one thing to another in respect of 
place. From this, by a natural and easy analogy, they are 
used to express similar relations in respect of time. 

2. From their primary and more common use to express 
certain relations of place and time, they are also used by 
analogy and figure to express various other connexions and 
relations among objects, in all of which, however, the primary 
and original use of the word may easily be traced. 

3. All prepositions ending with a vowel, except hucpl, neol, t 
and nob, reject the final vowel when compounded with or stand- 
ing before a word beginning with a vowel ; ducpl generally re- 
tains 1, but there are many exceptions- It is always rejected 
before the augment s. flab before s sometimes combines with 
it by contraction ; thus, nob soyov becomes noovqyov. § 89. 
Obs. 2. 



§ 124. prepositions 'Aficpl, "Ava, 'AvtI, 'And. 169 

4. There are eighteen prepositions, properly so called, in the 
Greek language ; of these 

Four govern the Genitive only, viz. ^ Avil, and, etc or e£, nod. 
Two govern the Dative only, ? EV, avv. 

Two govern the Accusative only, Elg or eg, and uvu. 
Four govern the Gen. and Ace. 4ia, xaia, {uera, {insg. 

Six govern the Gen., Dat., & Ace. 'Aficpl, neat, tnl, naou, 

ngbg, and tino. 



§ 124. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 

1. 'Apyl, the Genitive., Dative, and Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; round, round about. 

With the Genitive ; round, round about ; at the same time proceeding 
or originating from ; of, or concerning, upon, in addition to, for the sake of, 
for the love of. 

With the Dative; round, with the idea of rest and continuance ; of or 
concerning, among, after, or near, upon, for, i. e. in defence of; for, i. e. on 
account of; with. 

With the Accusative ; round, with the idea of tendency or approxima- 
tion to; near, of concerning, or belonging to. See also § 134. 13. 

In Composition, about, round about. 

2. 'Avdc, the Accusative. In poetry, sometimes the Dative. 

Primary Signification ; motion upwards, opposed to Kara. 
With the Accusative; over, up along, through, during, among, loith, 
in; in computation, up, viz. from a point backwards. 

With the Dative ; upon, on, in, with the idea of elevation and rest. 
In Composition ; motion upwards, repetition, increase, back again. 

3. 'AvtI, the Genitive. 

Primary Meaning; in front of, in a state of rest; set over against,!, e. by 
way of exchange, comparison, equivalence, or preference. Hence, 

With the Ge\ t itive ; For, i. e. equivalent; before,in preference; instead 
of against, equal to, for, in consideration of; upon. 

In Composition ; equality, substitution, reciprocity, comparison;opposition 

4. 'And, the Genitive. 

Primary Signification ; removal from,v\z. contact with ; opposite of npds. 

With the Genitive ; From, on, after, (from the time of,) against, by 
means of with, upon, of, i. e. proceeding from ; on account of, for, of i. e. be- 
longing to ; e. g. o\ dvd, those belonging to, viz. the Council, Plebeians, Stoics. 
&c. 

15 



170 prepositions 4ih 9 Elg or 'Eg, "Etc, 'Ev, "EnL <§ 124. 

In Composition ; departure, separation, negation, privation* augmenta- 
tion. 

5. Aib.) the Genitive and Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; through, motion through. 

With the Genitive; 1. By means of, with, viz. as an instrument; 
2. with regard to the space or time passed through, at, in; with numerals, 
every ; as, Sia ttkvte, every jive. 

With the Accusative ; For, on account of, viz. as the end, occasion, or 
cause ; e. g. itavra Si avrov lyhero, all things were made by him ; Travra 
<V avrdv lyivzro, all things were made for him. 

In Composition ; separation, division, arrangement, passage through, 
reciprocation, opposition, or competition, perseverance. 

6. Elg or eg 9 the Accusative. 

Primary Signification; to, into ; motion from without to ivithin ; the 
opposite of sk. 

With the Accusative; to, toviard, against, among, before, concern- 
ing, in respect of, in ; with numerals, about. It forms distributive's ;* as, 
els Iva, one by one ; it is used adverbially, sis fatal;, once ; els Sis, twice. 

In Composition; into. 

Note, when before a Genitive, an accusative is understood. 

7. 'Ex, (before a vowel *E£ 9 ) the Genitive. 

Primary Signification ; from, out, out of, motion from within to wilk~ 
out; opposite of els. 

With the Genitive it denotes motion from, causation, change of slate; 
rendered of, i. e. made of; of, viz. the number; out of, by, xoith, according to. 

In Composition : out of, it denotes division or separation, pre-eminence, 
completion or success, intensity. 

8. *Ev 9 the Dative. 

Primary Signification ; in, with the idea of rest and being contained 
within. 

With the Dative ; loilhin, during, among, before, in the power of, by, 
viz., by means of; in the case of, with, into. 

In Composition ; in or among. 

9. 'Enl, the Genitive, Dative, and Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; on or upon, with motion or rest. 

With the Genitive; on, upon, at, in, or near ; during, through, under, 
in the time of; after, with, by. 

With the Dative; upon, i. e. close and continuing upon, in the power 
of, i. e. resting upon ; on condition, during, besides, i. e. in addition to ; for. 
■'. e. in order to ; after, with, against, along, among, over, viz. in authority. 



§ 124. PREPOSITIONS Kardc, Mst&, IJaqb, Ueql. 171 

With the Accusative ; on or upon, with the idea of tendency or ap- 
proach towards ; to, towards, under, so as to be dependent upon ; in, over, 
during, against, viz.. motion towards with hostile intent. 

In Composition ; addition, increase, reciprocity, succession. 

10. Kara, the Genitive and Accusative, 

Primary Signification; down along, (parallel); down to, upon, or at, 
(perpendicular) ; down through, (transverse) ; opposite of dva. 

With the Genitive ; down from, viz. originating or proceeding down 
from, directed down by ; along, on, through, downwards; under, upon, at, 
as a mark; before, respecting, by, viz., in swearing ; against, among. 

With the Accusative ; down (not from, but,) parallel to, down along, 
or to ; through, according to, in respect of; in, on, by, near to, at, opposite, or 
before, during. Adverbially, Kara piKpov, by degrees. 

In Composition ; down, opposition, intensity. 

11 Meia, the Genitive, Dative (with the Poets), and the 
Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; with, together with, not as a part of, or one 
with; expressing a connexion less close than <tvv. 

With the GeNitive ; with, together with, by means of, viz., as connected 
with and depending upon ; according to, and, i. e. in conjunction with, as an 
agent, or object ; with, i. e. against ; with, i. e. for, on the side of; am,ong. 

With the Accusative ; after, i. e. following close or near to, in res- 
pect to space or time ; next to, next after, to, towards, for, or after, with a 
view to bring ; between, in. 

With the Dative ; by the poets only, in, ivith, among. 

In Composition; participation, change, reciprocity. 

12. JJixoa, the Genitive, Dative, or Accusative. 

Primary Signification : denotes motion from, close to, or towards an 
object, according to the case with which it is joined. 

With the Genitive; from, i. e. from beside; of, proceeding from ; 
by. with, near, from aniGn'g, above, or in comparison with. 
•With the Dative, at, with, near, among, with the idea of continuance. 

With the Accusative ; to, beyond, beside, towards, i. e. to the side of; 
through along, against, in comparison ivith. 

In Composition; it retains its general meaning; also defect. 

13. Ueql, the Genitive, Dative, and Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; round, round about, nearly the same with 
dju^i, but in a sense less close. 

With the Genitive ; round, round about, with the idea of origin or 
cause; about, i. e. of, or concerning ; with, for, viz. in defence of; above or 
before, denoting pre-eminence or superiority, 



172 prepositions TTgb, lTybg, 2vv, Tnkq. § 124. 

With the Dative ; round, round about, with rest or continuance ; for, 
i. e. concerning, on account of; from. 

With the Accusative ; round, or about, with tendency or approach to ; 
concerning or towards, about, i. e. near to, advancing towards ; about, 
i. c. with regard to ; in, of, against. 

In Composition ; round about, also denoting increase, abundance. 

14. /Tod, the Genitive. 

Primary Signification ; before, in respect of place or time, but without 
the idea of opposition or comparison which belongs to dvrl. 

With the Genitive ; before, in the presence of ; at the command of, 
through, denoting cause or origin ; for, in defence of; for, for the advan- 
tage of; before, denoting preference. 

In Composition ; before ; with verbs of motion, forth, forward. 

15. Ilgbg, the Genitive, Dative and Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; transition or passage, the relative direction 
being indicated by the case. 

With the Genitive ; from, i. e. transition from; from, by, denoting 
the agent ; belonging to, or tJie property of ; of, proceeding from ; on the 
side of: By, in oaths and supplications; before, to, so as to be protected 
by. 

With the Dative ; close to, near, and continuing ; besides, in addition 
to, before, occupied or busy with. 

With the Accusative ; to or toward*, against, according to, with, in 
comparison of. 

Is Composition ; motion to, addition, against, close to. 

16, 2ttv 9 the .Dative. 

Primary Signification ; with, closely connected with another, so as in 
some sense to form one with it ; see fierci. 

With the Dative; with, together with, according to, besides, with 
the assist nice of, at, during, to, on the side of. 

In Composition ; concurrence in action, association, combination, col- 
lection, completion, or fulfilment, collision, intensity. 

17. 'Yneo, the Genitive and Accusative. 

Primary Signification, over, or above, viz. in respect of* place, and! 
hence figuratively, over, in respect of power, authority, protection. 

With tih: Genitive; above, in a state of rest ; ever, in a state of mo- 
tion ; for, i. e. in defence of; for, viz. ir the place of; for, on account of;; 
by, for the sake of, of concerning, in order to. 

With the Accusative; over beyond, above or beyond, above, i. e* 
more than ; against. 






§ 125. OF CONJUNCTIONS. 173 

In Composition ; it retains its primary signification, also sometimes 
it augments. 

18. 'Ynb, the Genitive, Dative, and Accusative. 

Primari Signification ; under, modified by its case. 

With the Genitive; under, generally with the idea of protection, sub- 
jection, or the object of influence proceeding from ; also by, with, i. e. un- 
der the direction of; by means of, for, i. e. under the influence of. 

With the Dative ; simply under, completely under and continuing ; by. 

With the Accusative; under, viz., moving and proceeding under or 
coming up to the under part of a thing ; to, behind, about, on the eve of. 

In Composition ; it retains its primary signification. Sometimes it 
denotes diminution, privacy, beginning. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The preposition, as its name imports, usually stands before the word 
which it governs. When it comes after it, as it sometimes does, this is in- 
dicated b}' the change of the accent from the last syllable to the first. 

2. In composition, with a word beginning with a vowel, and generally 
when standing before such a word, the final vowel of the preposition is 
dropped, and, if the next preceding letter be a consonant, it is subject to the 
changes required by the laws of euphony ; thus, dird eavrov must be written 
dp" 1 eavrov. Hepi, however, never drops its final vowel, and U never changes 
its final letter except before a vowel, when it is changed into If. 

3. The preposition alone, with the accent thrown back to the first syllable, 
is sometimes used for certain compounds, of which it forms a part; thus, 
Ivi is used for svsori, it is lawful ; Ttipi for Tcepieari, it is Superfluous ; ava 
for dvaa-TrjQi, arise ; rdpa for Tcapevri, he is present, 





§ 125. OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction is an indeclinable part of speech, 
which serves to connect words and sentences 

together. 

Conjunctions, according to their different meanings, are 
divided into different classes, of which the following may be 
noticed ; viz. 

1. Connective; as, xal, re, and; in poetry, ^dk 9 Ids, r lt uer 7 

and ; v.u.1 ds, also, &c. 

2. Disjunctive ; as, % r\rot ; in poetry, r\e ; and sometimes r\yovr, 
r\nov, or. 

^3. Concessive ; as, x&v, y.ulneo, el xal, although. 

15* 



174 ADVERBIAL AND CONJUNCTIVE PARTICLES. § 125. 

4. Adversative ; as, alia, dk, o\rug, but; yk, at least ; ftli>, (U- 

hk fibvy but, truly, indeed; jub^tol, yet, &c. 

5. Causatives. which assign a reason for something previously 

said; as, y&g, for ; °iva, on, ornag, ocpga, that, 
(b:, wore, that, so that; ovpexa, (in poetry) be- 
cause; ei'nFQ, since indeed; insl, since, after that. 

6. Conclusive, or such as are used in drawing a conclusion, 

or inference from something previously said; i 
as, doa, ovu, therefore ; dio, dionhg, wherefore , I 
dij, then, truly ; toIvw, rv or vvv, therefore ; toi- 
yugovv, (emphatic) wherefore ; ovxovv, not there- i 
fore. 

7. Conditional ; as, el, av,ecu>, tjj% in poetry, *£, or xhv, al,\ 

(tl'xe, if; el'neg, if indeed. 

8. Expletive; as, ys, nsg, toI, ga, 6ev, vv, nod, nib, dg, &c. 

ADVERBIAL AND CONJUNCTIVE PARTICLES. 

The following remarks on the signification and use of cer 
tain adverbial and conjunctive particles, will be useful for re- 
ference. For more ample information on this subject, the ad- 
vanced student is referred to the work of Hoogeveen on the 
Greek Particles, an abridged translation of which has been 
published by the Rev. John Seager, B. A. 

AAA A. 

1. 'AXXd is adversative, and commonly answers to the English but. It ia 
sometimes used elliptical! y, to indicate confidence or readiness, and may be 
rendered " well, then,'* therefore. Thus, dXX' ev iaOi, bn fftt rovO' ovroyg, 
Well, then, know that this will be so, i. e. ovk dtcvfjeei, dXX', &c. / will not be 
unwilling but, on the contrary, know, &c. 

2. 'AXXu yap. Thus combined yap introduces a reason for the opposition 
expressed by dAXd ; as, dWa. yap vZpeoura Xevaao), iravaai rovg napecrrcoTag \dyovg. 
But / will stop the present discourse, for I see Creon coming. Sometimes, 
however, the reference is more latent, and a clause is to be supplied froir 
what precedes; thus, Plato, d\\a yap h aSov 6Uriu Swaouev, where there mas 
be supplied from the preceding sentence, ovk d^uoi d^dWd^onev, But wt 
shall not escape unpunished, for we shall render satisfaction in Hades 
Sometimes the reference is to a succeeding clause, and sometimes tc 
some general remark which the connexion and sense of the passage wil 
readily suggest, such as,^ft/,£ this is not surprising, far ; But this is not im 
possible, for ; &c. 

3. 'AXXd ye restricts with emphasis that which is general to something 
more special ; a=*, dXX' ovk av dypoUoig ye, oJofjiai, XotSopfjveiav. But at 
least they icoidd not, I think, revile us in a rude manner. 



§ 125. ADVERBIAL AND CONJUNCTIVE PARTICLES. 1^5 

4. 'AXX' ovv ye. When these particles are combined, they usually intimate 
that along with the opposition expressed- by dXXa a consequence of what has 
preceded is also expressed ; thus, aXX' ovv tovtov ye rdv %p6vov tJttov drjSiig 
ej-ofxat. Yet / will for this reason now at least be less disagreeable. 

5. 'AXXa joined with ovSs strengthens the negative ; as, dXX' ovdi T:eipaao\xat, 
Nay, I will not even try. In such sentences ov fxdvov ov may be supplied, 
equivalent to, I will not only not do it, but I will not even try. 

6. 'AXXa is strengthened by adding roi ; as, dXX' rjSv tol, i\v avhog napr}, 
Why, that is a pleasant thing enough, if, &c. 

AN, (Poet. KE or KEN.) 

r Ai/ (Poetice Ke or xev) according to Professor Dunbar, is derived from* 
aw, the same as eaat, to give, grant, or allow ; and that the primary meaning 
of the particle thus derived is granted or allowed, which can be readily trac- 
ed in all the variety of expression in which it is employed. This particle is 
used 

1. In the sense of lav, if, of which in this sense it is probably only an ab- 
breviated form. Thus used, it expresses a condition, and may begin a sen- 
tence ; &s, av deo$ Qi\ri, if (granted) God will. In all its other applications 

I av can stand only after other words in its clause. 

2. It is used with indefinites, adding to them the force of the Latin -cmi' 

que, -soever ? as, ocTig av. whoever, or whosoever. 
I 

3. It is used most generally to limit the verb to which it belongs, and 

partly or entirely takes from that verb its direct affirmative power. 

With the indicative imperfect, pluperfect, and aorists, it is rendered by 
;j should, would', should have, would have, &c. § 170. 4. and Obs. 1. ; and also 
J to express ability, and rendered by could or could have. It is sometimes 
Joined to the future, and seems to'soften the decisiveness of the statement; as, 
ijS hi Kev KexoXaytrerai ov kzv "Kwpai, and he will perhaps be angry to whom I 

go. It is but very seldom found with the indicative present; a few in- 
| stances, however, have been produced from Aristophanes and Plutu?. 
i With the subjunctive it is never joined, unless accompanied with cer- 
ii tain other words, such as og, oaog, oang, bnorepog, ou, ottov, Iva, &c. &c. except 
is when used in the sense of lav as above. (1.) 
il; It is used with the optative of all the tenses except the future, as in 

§ 172. Obs. 6. II. 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th. 

Wiih the infinitive and participles it gives a contingent signification 

(commonly in tl«B future), which may be resolved by changing the verb or 

parliciple into the optative with av ; as, oXovrai dv^ixd^eadai av, they think that 

they could retrieve themselves , ^\\a snoiird, 7rdXX' J^ ^X Cl)v £l ' 7r£ " / ? I omit the 

■-est, though I have much lo say. 

4. It is used in positive statements with ihj^pfit moods to give an ex- 
I'oression of hesitation and modesty to the assertion ; as, w? av pot 66kti, as it 
^eems (would seem) to me; qvk av olSa, I (should; hardly know. 



176 ADVERBIAL AND CONJUNCTIVE PARTICLES. § 125 

5. r Ai' is frequently repeated, either on account of its standing at a grea 
distance from the verb, or to give emphasis to the condition suggested tn 

it ; crag av \cyoifxi av, having stationed myself I would say , 

-cos hi y av fraX&s \tyoi$ av ; how can you, how can you Say, &c. ? 

G. It is sometimes used to intimate that the verb in the preceding clause 
is to be repeated ; as, si J/7 rcZ cocpajrepos (pairjv eivai, tovtu) av (sc. tpairjv zlva 
ocxptorepos), ifl thought to bt more, wise in any thing, it would be in this , 

'APA. 

1. r Apa, denoting inference or conclusion, always stands after some wore 
in its clause; its proper signification is " of course" "in the nature q 

■ things?' and is commonly rendered therefore, consequently ; it is used in th* 
successive steps of a train of reasoning ; as, If there are altars there an 
also gods ; d\\a prjv ei&i fltojxoi' stalv apa ical Beoi, But there certainly are altars 
therefore there are gods too. It is used in making a transition to what fol 
lows in the order of time or e Vents, or in the progress of thought. With e 
or lav it expresses conjecture; as, el apa Svvovrai, if indeed (i. e. in th> 
course of things) they can. Sometimes it serves for an emphatic assevem 
lion as if founded on an inference. 

2. The adverb apa is different from this, and is always placed first in j 
clause or sentence. It is merely an interrogative particle like the Lath 
num or utrum ; as, apa Kara&rikov tfjuAo/^at \eyeiv ; Is, then, iclial I wish l' 
say evident ? When a negative answer is expected it has generally the par 
tide (xri annexed. The Latin nonne is expressed by dp ov, and sometime 
by apa alone. 

TAP. 

1. Tap, for, always follows other words like the Latin enim, which it rei 
sembles in signification, and for which at the beginning of a sentence kq\ 
yap, like the Latin etenim, is often used. Its use is to assign a reason fo| 
what is said. Very often, however, that of which it assigns the cause i| 
merely implied or hinted at, and must be supplied to show the force of yap 
It will frequently be found to refer to such expressions understood; as, Yei 
No, no wonder, I believe, I cannot, &c, as, for example, in the answer si 
common in Plato, fan yap ovto), Yes, or certainly, for so it is. Thus, Hoi 
hut, ( ><). 10. 501. ^£2 Kipxr), ri<; yap ravrrjv bdov tiyepovzvaret ; Oh Circe, (I can; 
not no (hither,) for viho will guide me on this way ? From this interrogative! 
use it came sometimes to be used merely to strengthen a*question, like tty 
Latin nam in quisnam. • 

2. In such expression* as ko.1 yap, «XXa yap, the former particle indie ; 
the omission of something of which yap assigns a cause ; thus, koI ydpl. 
strrctly translated means, and (no wonder,) for; and (it is natural,) for $ 
and the like for the rendering of d\\a yap. Sec d\~Xd. 2. 



I 



§ 125. ADVERBIAL AND CONJUNCTIVE PARTICLES. 177 



TE. 

Ti (enclitic) is a particle of limitation, and signifies at least, certainly, 
however, indeed, and is used to single out an individual object from a num- 
ber ; as, ei fxf, b\ov fxcpog ye, if not the whole at least apart ; iya ye, I indeed, 
I at least. In most combinations it can be rendered into English only by 
giving greater emphasis to the word witbffhich it is connected. 

AE. » 

The particle Se, but, is used both to distinguish and oppose, and always 
stands after one or more words in a clause. It often serves, however, mere- 
ly to mark transition from one proposition to another ; and, in general, every 
proposition which has no other conjunction at its commencement, takes this 
k, whether really opposed to the preceding or not. When so used, it may 
ibe rendered by and, for, or any other word which the nature of the connec- 
tion may require ; or it may often remain untranslated. Its principal use, 
however, is in connexion with pev, which see. 

AH. 

A/?, a particle of affirmation, signifies truly, really, icithout doubt. It is 
iised in affirmative answers ; as, SrjXov 3%, it is certainly manifest. It is used 
ronically, especially after w S ; and after relative and comparative words it 
M usually emphatical. With irav joined to it (8faov,) it signifies certainly, 
tig., and sometimes perhaps. It differs from tfv and ys, also affirmative 
.vords, in this, that 6n strongly asserts a thing as already established ; tfv 
bpee on to press the assertion without relaxing as to what has preceded ; 
Wrile ye asserts with limitation, yielding as to the past, or other things, but 
nsisting upon this. 

i 2. Aii, from jjSn, as an adverb, signifies now ; joined with vvv, this very 
noment ; as, vvv rjSri ^.a^r\ T iov, we must fight this very moment. With verbs 
in the preterite, it denotes just now. As a conjunction, it is used. I. in ex- 
porting ; as, \eye Srj, come noic, read; 2. In questions, it indicates the earn- 
estness of the speaker, and his desire of an immediate answer; as, ra void 
fi ravra ; what now are these ? 3. In expressing admiration when joined 
Mh vote ; as, tl Afaore tovt&v, why now these ; 4. In commencing a sub- 
bet; as, r Q,6e 6% oKOTt&pev ai>r6, now let us consider it in this way; 5. In 
narking the successive stages of thought as they rise one above another, 
n each of these it signifies now truly, until at the last it signifies finally. 

KAI and TE. 

1 Kal and re have the same significations in reference to each other as the 
.atin et and que. Both connect single ideas, and the entire parts of a sen- 
j ;nce. With the older poets re is more common than in the Attic prose wri- 
iirs, and it is commonly put not merely'once between the connected parts, 
lit joined to each of them ; as, natty avlotiv te detiv re, the father of both gods 



178 ADVERBIAL AND CONJUNCTIVE PARTICLES. § 125. 

and men. When tc precedes teal in separate clauses, the former signifies 
not only ; the latter, but also; re koX, and also, connect more closely than 
simple /cat ; xal — ku\, both — and; as well — as; aXXcoj rs /cai, especially, i.e. 
(both in other respects) and also, particularly also. 

MA and NH, 

Ma and N?) are particles of obtestation, and always govern the accusative 
of the object; vrj is alway^affirmative ; pa, when alone, is negative, but is j 
nevertheless attached both to affirmative and negative obtestations; as, ml 

fia At a, and ov fia Aia. 

MEN and AE. 

Miv and Si are two particles referring to each other ; they are used to dis 
tinguish, and at the same time to connect, the different clauses of a sentence 
together. Thus used, fxiv is generally placed in the first clause of a sen- 
tence, and Si in each of the succeeding ones. Hence, whenever we find 
fxev in the first member of a sentence, the thought necessarily turns to an op 
posite member with Si. Sometimes, however, after piv the expected Si does 
not actually follow ; i. e. when the opposition is so clear that Si is not neces- 
sary to point it out, or when some other word, such as d\\d, drdp, &c, 
supplies its place. In like manner Si is often used without being preceded 
by fxcv, referring to something conceived in the mind but not expressed ; or, 
without such reference, it is used simply to connect the parts of a sentence 
less closely than by ph — Si, or other conjunctions. In opposition they are com 
monly rendered indeed — but. See Si. 

The distributive use of \xiv and Si with the article, relative pronoun, &c 
will be noticed § 133. 3. and 134. 19. 

OYN and OYKOYN. 

1. Ow, wherefore, is used, 1st. In drawing an ultimate conclusion in the 
view of all that has been said before ; in this it differs from apa, which is 
used in successive steps in the process of reasoning. 2. It commences a 
chapter or paragraph, with some reference to what has preceded. 3. It 
continues or resumes a subject, after a digression. 4. Introduces a tran- 
sition to some new subject ; and lastly, has an affirmative force, particularly 
in replies ; as, yiyvtrai ovu ovrayg, it is certainly so ; hence the compounds, 

2. Ovkovv and fttSv, for p") ovv. The former is properly a negative infer- 
ence ; as, " it u not therefore ;" though sometimes it loses its negativechar- 
acter, and denotes " therefore ;" n&v is used interrogatively, " is it not there- 
fore ?" 

IIEP. 

Hep (enclitic) is nearly allied to yt, and is used to express the idea with 
more emphasis than it would have without it. This is indicated in English 
merely by a greater emphasis of the* word, or by the words very, ever, and 
the like. Joined with a participle it is commonly rendered although^ how 



§ 125. ADVERBIAL AND CONJUNCTIVE PARTICLES. 179 

much so ever, with a relative it adds the force of the Latin cunque, or the 
English ever ; thus, amp, quozcunque, whatever, oanep, quicunque, whoever, 
&c. ; as, awsp Xeyei, whatever he does say ; dyaQog wsp h'cov, excellent though 
thou art ; rjircp dx tv ' j us ^ aS ^ e waS ' 

noY. 

1. IlorJ is a particle interrogative, of place, and signifies 1. where ? 2. ivhith- 
*er ? As an enclitic it signifies motion to a place ; as, gttevSg) ttov, lam hasten- 
ing to some place, somewhither, and also indicates place indefinitely any- 
where hence it is joined with adverbs of place ; as, skeT Si ttov, somewhere 
there- about s. 

2. From the indefiniteness of its signification arises its conjectural use to 
express a thing with a degree of uncertainty and caution expressed in Eng- 
lish by probably , perhaps, if I mistake not, &c, and hence is used in elicit- 
ing and asking consent ; as, cvvoiadd ttov kcu avrdg 6tl, &c. You yourself, as 
well as I, know, if I mistake not, ox doubtless, that, &c„, where an affirma- 
tive reply is evidently expected. Hence also its use as a diminutive, to 
qualify what might otherwise seem too positive or peremptory. Thus used 
it may be rendered by pretty nearly, in my opinion, perhaps, &c. This 
particle, though often used, is never redundant, ov 6fi ttov, for example, is, no 
indeed, as I think ; not truly in my opinion. 

1. This particle with the circumflex is interrogative and signifies how ? 
as, ttojs ovk d$ids earl tovtov ; how can he but be worthy of this ? Joined 
with yap they constitute an emphatic negative, ncog yap Troifjoa) ; for how 
shall §sdo it ? i. e. hwill not do it at all. So also Kal -rraig eria>7rco ; I cannot 
be silent; literally, and how am J to be silent ? 

2. As an enclictic vug signifies some how, in some degree, &c. as, aAAwj 
7T0)g. in some other v;ay ; d>6e 7rw?, somehow thus ; &c. 

OS. 

This particle is extensively employed, and with a great variety of usage • 
as, 1. It is used for "va, to denote a purpose; as, w? Seifansv, in order that 
we may shew ; 2. Forort with the meaning of that ; as, \eyovreg <o? Ixuvog, 
&c, saying that he. &c. ; 3. More commonly it signifies as, expressing si- 
militude ; as, o>? SovXog, as a slave ; " He taught them — w? k^ovciav lx 0iv i as 
one having authority?' 4. With the acute accent and not before an enclic- 
tic nor after a word on which it depends, it has the sense of ovrag, thus ; as, 
j { wg eiTTuv, having spoken thus. 5. In exclamations it has the sense of how ' 
as, 5$ at ixaKapi^o^v, how happy we deem you! hence its use with the opta- 
tative in the sense of the Latin utinam ; as, &g ^ o<peX' "Kktop KreTvai ! 
, Would that Hector had slain me I literally, hovj Hector ought to have 
ilain me I 6. Before superlative adjectives and adverbs, like 8ti, it strength- 

■ 



180 ADVERBIAL AND CONJUNCTIVE PARTICLES. § 125. 

ens the meaning; as, d>,~ ro^iora, as quickly as possible. Allied to thi3 is 
its power as a strengthening particle, with the positive decree, in such ex- 
pressions ; as, bis dXnOtig, trull/, really, 7. It is useJ for the purpose of 
limiting propositions wit \ the infinitive; as, Uidmiv^ so to speak : ug sUdaai.as 
far as one may conjecture ; and also in the same sense it te used before 
whole clauses and propositions; as, log hti to tto\v, for th? most part ; on 
npdg to (xeysdos r/7? ttiSXccj?, in proportion to the size of the city. 8. As a par- 
ticle of time it signifies when, sometimes while ; as, dog Sk n\de, but ivhen he ' 
came. 9. With numerals it signifies about ; as, tig rpia J) rirrapa ardSia, 
about three or four stadia. 10. With participles in the genitive absolute, 
and also in the dative or accusative, it is rendered as, since, because, inas- 
much as, as if ; and the participle is then rendered by the indicative ; as, 
lo; ravTrjg rrjg %wpa? e^vpoirjLTrjs oi'qj, because this place was the most secure. 
11. It is often put by the Attics for the preposition ds, Trpoj, or hi ; as, w? 
£/*£, towards me,; cog tov SaviXia, to the king. 

[CZ? b For the negative particles oi> and /**?, with their combinations and 
compounds, see § 166. 

Obs. Though it is, in many cases, difficult to give a distinct translation of 
some of the Greek particles, or even always to feel their force, yet they 
ought never to be regarded as mere expletives. In all languages there are 
particles which are often employed chiefly for the sake of completeness, or 
in order to produce a well-sounding fulness, yet never without their own 
peculiar sense ; and though it is often difficult to define what that sense is, 
yet every one feels that the expression is incomplete without them. So it is 
also in the Greek language. The full and original meaning of many of 
these particles has become- partially lost, and they now give to the discourse 
only a slight colouring which we cannot properly feel except after long 
acquaintance and practice. For a more full elucidation of the force and use 
of these particles we refer the reader to the elaborate work of Hoogeveen on 
the Greek particles. 



§ 126. SYNTAX. 181 



PART III. 



§ 126. SYNTAX. 

Syntax is that part of Grammar which treats 
of the proper arrangement and connexion of 
words in a sentence. 

A Sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes com- 
plete sense ; as, JSlan is mortal. 

. A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, but not 
making complete sense; as, hi truth, in a word. 

Sentences are of two kinds, Simple and Compound. 

A Simple sentence contains but one subject and one verb ; 
as, Life is short. 

A Compound sentence contains two or more simple sen- 
tences combined ; as, Life, which is short, should be well em- 
ployed. 

Every simple sentence consists of two parts, the subject and 
the predicate. 

The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of. It is either in 
the nominative case before a finite verb, or in the nominative 
or accusative before the infinitive. 

The predicate is the thing affirmed or denied of the subject. 
It is either contained in the verb itself; as, John reads; or it 
consists of a neuter verb with an adjective or noun following 
it ; as, Time is short ; They became poor. 

Both the subject and the predicate may be attended by other 
( words, called adjuncts, which serve to restrict or modify the 
meaning of the word with which they may stand connected ; 
as, " An inordinate desire of admiration often produces^ con- 
temptible levity of deportment " 

When a compound sentence is so framed that the meaning 
is suspended till the whole be finished, it ^ called a period. 



1S2 PARTS OF SYNTAX. § 127, 12S. 

§ 127. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX. 

1. In every sentence there must be a verb and a nominative, 
or subject expressed or understood 

2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, 
must have a substantive expressed or understood with which it 
agrees. 

3. Every nominative has its own verb expressed or under- 
stood. 

4. Every verb (except in the infinitive and participles) has 
its own nominative expressed or understood. 

5. The genitive is governed by a noun, a verb, a preposi- 
tion, or an adverb ; or it is placed as the case absolute with 
the participle. 

6. The dative is governed by adjectives, verbs, and preposi- 
tions. It also expresses the cause, manner, or instrument. 

7. The accusative is governed by an active verb or preposi- 
tion. 

8. The vocative either stands alone, or is governed by an in-> 
ierjection. 

9. The infinitive mood is governed by a verb, an adjective, 
or adverbial particle. 



§ 128. PARTS OF SYNTAX. 

The parts of Syntax are commonly reckoned 
two, Concord and Government. 

Concord is the agreement of one word with 
another in gender, number, case, or person. 

Government is that power which one w T ord 
has in determining the mood, tense, or case of ano- 
ther word, 

I. OF CONCORD. 

Concord is fourfold ; viz. 

1. Of a substantive with a substantive. 

2. Of an adjective with a substantive. 

3. Of a relative with its antecedent. 

4. Of a verb with its nominative (or subject). 



§ 129, 130. AN ADJECTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 183 

§ 129. A SUBSTANTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 

Rule 1. Substantives denoting the same per- 
son or thing agree in case ; as, 

Jlavlo; dnocriolog, Paul, an apostle. 

JZcoxoarr]; 6 cpiloaocpog, Socrates, the philosopher. 

Oe£j xour^ To God, the judge. 

Substantives thus used are said to be in apposition. The second sub- 
stantive is -added to express some attribute, description, ox: appellative be- 
longing to the first, and must always be in the same member of the sentence, 
i. e. they must be both in the subject, or both in the predicate. A substan- 
tive predicated of another, though denoting the same thing, is not in apposi- 
tion with it. See § 139. III. Rule 6. 

Obs. 1. One of the substantives is sometimes understood; as 5 
koTvayrj; 6 K va^aoov, (sup. vlbg,) Astyages, the son ofCyaxares. 

Obs. 2. The possessive prououn in any case being equiva- 
lent in signification to the genitive of the substantive pronoun 
from which it is derived, requires a substantive in apposition 
with it to be put in the Genitive; as, dur\o sfibg r\v xwibnidog, 
He was the brother-in-law of me, a shameless woman. 
See § 133. 17. 

Obs. 3. On the same principle, possessive adjectives formed 
from proper names, being equivalent to the genitive of their 
primitives, have a noun in apposition in the genitive ; as, 
NeiJiooeriTTuqa vr[i rTvXrjyeveo; fiaoilr\og, near the ship OF NESTOR 
A KtNrj bom at Pylos ; A0r t vaiog <bv, nolswg rr^g [isy tori] g, being 
m citizen o/ at hens, a very large city. See § 133. 18. 

Obs. 4. Sometimes the latter of two substantives signifying 
the same thing is put in the genitive; as, no fog 'AOrjvibv, (for 
Adr\vai,) the city of Athens. 

■ 



§ 130. AN ADJECTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 

Rule II. An adjective agrees with its sub- 
stantive in gender, number and ease; as, 

/orjOTog uvr^o, a good man. 

xali\ yvvt], a beautiful woman. 

Koivbv ayadbv (/orjiia), a common good. 

This Rule applies to the Article, Adjective, Adjective Pronouns, and 
'Participles. 

I 
I 



]SJ CONCORD OF THE ADJECTIVE. § 131. 

Obs. 1. Other words are sometimes used as adjectives, and 
consequently fall under this rule; viz. 

1st. A substantive which limits the signification of a more 

general term ; as, e Elhxg (pco*^, the Greek language. 
2d. Adverbs placed between the article and its substantive ; 

as, o fisTa^v totio;, the intervening space. 

Obs. 2. The place of the adjective is sometimes supplied 
by a substantive with a preposition ; as, ^dorri /listu <5o£?/£, (fori 
€ vdotog,) exalted pleasure. Sometimes by a substantive gov- 
erning the other in the genitive ; as, 6ddog 3%, depth of earth, 
i e. deep earth; t\ nfgicraFla jr\g x&guog, abundance oj grace, 
i. e. abundant grace. For the adverbial adjective, See § 165. 
• Obs. 2. 



§ 131. OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONCORD OF 
THE ADJECTIVE. 

n bs. 1. Two or more substantives singular, unless taken 
separately, have an adjective plural. If- all the substantives be 
of the same gender, the adjective will be of that gender. If 
of different geiiders, the adjective takes the masculine rather 
than the feminine, and the feminine rather, than the neuter. 
But if the substantives signify things without life, the adjective 
is commonly put in the neuter gender. Not unfrequently, 
however, the adjective agrees with one of the substantives and: 
is understood to the rest ; as, ixhl yty 101 loig re cpih], nole. 
uoirs [i&xcutb ; contention to thee is always delightful, and wars 
and battles. 

Obs. 2. When the substantive to which the adjective belongs 
may be easily supplied, it is frequently omitted, and the adjec- 
tive, assuming its* gender, number, and case, is used as a sub 
stantive ; as, 6 \40rjvuiog, the Athenian ; ol dtxaioi, the right eons 

Obs. 3. Adjectives in -mog are used in the neuter gender with 
the article, and without a substantive in two different senses. 
1. In the Singular they express generally a whole; as, to ln- 
7tixuv, the cavalry ; to ttoIltikov, the citizens. 2. In the plu- 
ral they signify any circumstance which can be determined! 
by the context; as, 1a Toujixu, the Trojan war ; t& c ElXrjnxu,, 
the Grecian history. 

Obs. 4. The adjective, especially when used as a predicate,! 
without a substantive, is often put in the neuter gender, XQW a i\ , 
rtQay/uu, 'c&ov, &c. being understood ; as, ^ naiqlg cp&iajo* * 



;' 



§ 131. CONCORD OF THE ADJECTIVE. 1S5 

(scil. Z9V m ) fiooToTg, their country is (a thing) very dear to 
men; /ocleTidv to noielv, to do is hard. 

Obs. 5. Two adjectives are frequently joined together, one 
of which by expressing negatively the sense of the other, ren- 
ders it more emphatic; as, yvona x otix tiyrand /uoi, literally, 
known and not unknown, (i. e. well known,) to me. 

Obs. 6. Adjectives are very often put in the neuter singular 
and plural, with and without an article, for adverbs ; as, nomov, 
in the first place; to ngmov, at first ; tu /uuXiotcx, chiefly ; *ou- 
cpaTu secretly, &c. 

Obs. 7. In any gender or number, adjectives are sometimes 
used in the sense of adverbs, to express a circumstance of time, 
place, order, manner; as, eneaov 'xy/rjcru vol, they fell near each 
other; ucplxezo devrsoaTog—TQLTaTog, he came on the second — 
third day. § 165. Obs. 2. So iif Latin, qui creatur annuus. 
Ca)s. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

Exc. 1. An adjective is often put in a different gender or 
number from the substantive with which it is connected, tacitly 
referring to its meaning rather than to its form, or to some 
other word synonymous with it, or implied in it ; as, 

y.ooiov yalllcfTa, a most beaidijul girl. 

lb ayaOe ipv/rj, O brave soul. 

h^oTr^qiov tcvq IrcicpeoovTag, a band of thieves bringing fire. 

Exc. 2. A collective noun in the singular may have an ad- 
jective in the plural, and in the gender of the individuals which 
form the collection ; as, fiovlr^ r^v/lav f7/sv — ovx dyvovvTsg, the 
council kept peaceable — -not being ignorant. 

So in Latin, maxima pars — in flumen acti sunt. 

Exc. 3. In the dual number the Attic writers sometimes 
join a masculine adjective with a feminine noun; as, TOtmo-nb 
riuiou, these two days. 

Exc. 4. An adjective masculine in' the superlative degree 

i is sometimes joined to a feminine noun to increase the 

brce of the superlative ; as, al xooac /uelavraTOL, very black 

pupils. Also, a masculiue adjective is joined with a femi- 

liiine noun when the plural is used for the singular, and when a 

" 'horns of women speak of themselves; thus, Medea says of 

. lerself, xnl yuo i^iy.riuivvn o'lyijooueOu, xobl(to6vu)v vix(b/uevoi 9 

hough injured I will be silent, yielding to superior powers. 

16* 



186 CONCORD of tii:: ADJECTIVE. § 131. 

Exc. 5. An adjective in the masculine gender may be join- 
ed with a noun denoting a female, if the attention is drawn to 
the idea of a person without regard to the sex 

Exc. 6. A substantive dual may have an adjective plural ; 
and vice versa, a substantive plural, when two is denoted, may 
have an adjective dual ; as, cpllag neol %eTQ6 P<kl®u6tf, let us em- 
brace ; dvo y/wuaTa i/ofiivw aklr^wv, two successive cliasms, 

Exc. 7. The adjectives exaoiog, dllog, in the singular, are put 
with nouns in the plural, to intimate that the objects expressed 
by them are spoken of individually and distributively ; as, 

olde sxacriog eds/ovio dexa, they each received ten. 
r^om^v ds allog alio, they asked some one thing 

and some another* 
So in Latin, Quisque pro se queruntur. Liv. 
Exc. 8 Plural adjectives sometimes agree with their sub- 
stantives in geiider and number, and govern them in the gen- 
itive case; as, 

ol nalaiol tg)j> noLTjT&v, the ancient poets. 

So also among the Attic writers in trie singular; as, 
diarol6(x)v tqv nollbv tov xqqvoV) spending much time, 

Exc. 9. Instead of agreeing with its substantive, the adjec- 
tive is sometimes put in the neuter gender, and the substantive 
following it in the genitive, (§ 142. R. VI.) ; as, slg tooovtov 
rnluj]g, (for zoaavrrjv t61utji>), to such a pitch oj boldness. The 
abstract noun is sometimes used instead of the adjective ; as, 
(JtcOog yr^g, depth of earth, instead of GadeTa y^ deep earth. 

Exc. 10. Proper na-nes in the singular are sometimes ac- 
companied by the adjectives Ttgwrog, nag, and others in the 
neuter plural, as predicates or in apposition ; as, Aaam^v Jliyi- 
rr)Tboii>, Lampon the chief of the JEginetaz; navra dh r\v rolou 
IhtKvlwvlotoi Zwrtuoog, Zopyrus was every thing to the Babylo- 
nians. 

Exc. 11. Demonstrative pronouns in the neuter singular 
may refer to nouns of any gender which do not express a per- 
son ; and in the neuter plural to persons as well as things, and 
to the singular as well as to the plural ; as, neol avdolug, inl ndow 
tlv uviov (ardo'ag} dt$<uo oregeoOixi ; concerning MANLY FOR- 
titude, for how much would you consent to be deprived of it? ; 
Tolg elg ruvru iZafiaoidvovoi,, who offend against these, Scil. 
jovg nuidug xul vxg yvvulxug, wives and children. 

So also with the adjectives nlelo^, nlelo), ufTov, &c. ; as ? 



J 133. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 187 

* 

IrcTTEag fikv a$ei ov jjlbXov S 10 fivgkov , he will bring not less than 
twenty thousand horse. 



§ 132. OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 

1. The Comparative is used when two objects or classes of 
! objects are compared ; the superlative when more than two are 

1 compared. 

2. The positive is sometimes used in a comparative sense, 
and is followed by the infinitive ; as, olh/oc o-vpSaleiv, too jew 
to fight 

3. When one quality is compared with another in the same 
I subject, the adjectives expressing these qualities are both put in 
p the comparative degree connected by *j ; .as, nlouatmsgog t] 

crogpwrsoo;, more rich than wise. So ia Latin, decentior quam 
sublimiorj fuit. Tacit. 

4. The comparative is sometimes made by joining [lallov 
i with the positive; and, for the sake of emphasis, sometimes 

with the comparative; as, {.taXLov 616 mat f go g, more happy. 

5. The superlative is often used to express a very high de- 
3 gree of a quality in any object, but without comparing it 
i with any other: as, qlv^q QpiloTiuoiuiog, a very ambitious man; 
\ Ttgrfiim evydeaTUTOv, a very foolish thing. 

fi. The superlative is often strengthened in signification by 
adding certain adverbial words and particles ; such as, nollS, 
uiMoZj, ttoXv, [laklcriot, n'keio'WP^ Q%(x, cb», ottcoc, oil, 17 , &c. ; as, 
'! nolhZ arrdfi'eararoi', muck Ike weakest; o/ agio-iog, eminently 
the best ; &g ru/icna, as quickly as possible ; bit xIsTotov %go- 
'•vni\ as longtime as possible. Also by the numeral elg ; as, 
slg darty SelricFiog, a, man of all others the best. 

For the construction of the comparative and superlative de- 
1 gYQ3 as it respects government, see § 143. Rule X. and XL 



§ 133. OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

Rule. Adjective pronouns agree with their 
['substantives in gender, number, and case. 









1S8 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. § 133. 

The Definite, avtbg. 

For the import and use of the Definite pronoun avibg, see 
§62. 

When used as a personal pronoun, avwg takes the gender, and 
liumber of the noun for which it stands, and the case which 
the noun would have in its place. Sometimes, however, like 
the adjective, (§ 131. Exc. 1.) it takes the gender and num- 
ber of a synonymous substantive, or of one that expresses the 
meaning of that for which it stands ; as, /u(xOi]ievaaTS ndvia id 
eO v 7] (mnii'Copisg afizo-bg, "teach all nations baptizing 
them," where atiiovg is put for avdqibnovg, which expresses 
the meaning of Wvr]. 

Note. This observation applies to all adjective pronouns used without, 
and instead of the substantives, to which they refer. 

_ . "X 

Demonstratives. 

2. The Demonstratives are used without a substantive only 
when they refer to a noun, or pronoun, or subtantive clause in 
the proposition going before ; or in that coming immediately 
after. 

3. When two persons or things are spoken of, ovrog, this, 
refers to the iatter ; izeTvog, that, to the former. In the same 
nianner are sometimes used 6 fjthv and og /lisp, referring to the 
former, ando ds and og ds, to the latter, sometimes vice versa. 

4. The demonstratives oviog and ode are generally distin- 
guished thus ; ovTog refers to what immediately precedes, ode 
to what immediately follows ; as, iuvia dexoiaag. having heard 
these things ; eXeye jd$F, he announced as follows. 

5. The d monstrative words are frequently used in a kind of 
apposition with a noun, or pronoun, or part of a sentence in 
the same proposition. This is done, 1. for the sake of em- 
phasis, or, at the beginning of a sentence, to call the attention 
more particularly to what is to be said ; as, it d* ixeTva cptiuar, 
jugTTf-votg re y.<xl igwrfoeig, what shall I say as to these things 
question and interrogation ? Long, it noi loilv tttfro, ^ doFir[* 
what is virtue ? In such cases the pronoun is commonly in the 
neuter gender. 2. If the parts of a sentence immediately related, 
be separated by intervening clauses, the pronoun being intro- 
duced in the last part in apposition with the distant word in 
the first, brings them as it were together; as, dlld deovg ye rovg 
del oviag xal rourovg rpoGovueroi ur\ie uveO&g firjdkv vcoi^. 



§ 133. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 189 

eyre, but the gods who are eternal, and whose power and in- 
spection extend over all things, and who preserve the harmo- 
ny and order of the universe free from decay or defect, the 

greatness and beauty of which is inexplicable fearing 

thesk, do nothing wicked. 

6. When that with which the demonstrative stands in appo- 
sition is a sentence, or part of a sentence, it is put in the 
neuter gender, and is often connected with it by ore or <b; ; 
as, ulV ol3e iovto oil ravia kiiv ecrnv aixavxa la/wola xeli.ieva 
Iv user®, but he knows (this) well that all these places are openly 
before them. 

The sentence is sometimes so arranged that the clause with 
otl stands first; as, uto J' el%e nxsoh., tout' Xvuev, but we knew 
(this) that he had wings This construction, so common in 
Greek, is seldom if ever used in Latin. 

7. Ovw;, with nut before it, is used in the latter clause of a 
sentence, in an adverbial or conjunctive sense, to call the at- 
tention more particularly to the circumstance which it intro- 
duces, and may be rendered "and that" "and truly" "in 
deed," "although" &c, as the sense may require; as, olxou 
fag uovvoi ^ I&v&v ovx dyovov ' jlrtuxovgia, xul ovxoi xaxa cpovov 
nva oxr^piv, for these alone of the lonians do not celebrate the 
Apaiouria, and that under pretext of a certain murder ; i. e. 
and these do so under pretext, &c. rvvouxbg xal javrr/g 
rsxgu;, sI'tl; Kiyeu xovvoiiu nicpooxe, if any one mentions the name 
of a woman, although (i. e. and that woman being) dead, 
he shudders. 

But when the pronoun is less definite, not referring to any 
particular sub-tantive in the preceding clause, but to some- 
thing expressed in it, it is put in the neuter plural, and may 
generally be rendered " especially," •' although," &c. ; as, 2v 
Si uol doxeT; ov nooai/siP ibv vovv rovxoig, xal tcxvxoi ooqpog 
(bv, but you do not seem to me to give your attention to these 
things, although being wise. Expressions of this kind are 
doubtless elliptical, rroisT; or some such word being understood, 
and mav be rendered " and these things you do." Indeed, it 
is sometimes expressed thus, in Dem. pro Phor. After reproach- 
ing Apollodorus with his dissolute conduct he adds, xalxavxa 
yuvulxa 8/uv tioisTq, and these things you do, having a 
wife ; which, without noveXg, might be rendered " though hav- 
ing a wije." 

Yet sometimes these words seem to have no dependence on 



190 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. § 133. 

any part of the sentence, but are thrown in to call the att.cn* 
tion to a special circumstance. 

8. The demonstrative pronoun is*often joined with adverbs 
of time and place to define these circumstances with greater 
emphasis or precision; as, xd vvv r(kde,just now ; tovi ixel,at 
that very time. 

9. The demonstrative pronouns are sometimes used instead 
of the personal pronouns eyw and av, and, in speaking, when 
thus used, were probably accompanied with action, so as clearly 
to point out the person intended. When used instead of the 
2d person, they most commonly express contempt. The ex- 
pression ohiog hlul is equivalent to the Latin en adsum, Lo ! 
here am I. 

The Indefinite rig. 

10. The indefinite ilg, § 6S, added to a substantive, com- 
monly answers to the English words a, an, a certain one, any 
one, &c. ; as, jl;</.vriq, a man, any man, some man. — Sometimes 
with a noun it is used collectively ; as Ogwaxav ng xura xvua 
— : — I /dug, many a fish bounding through the wave. — Some- 
times disiribulively ; as, xal Tlgolxhjv uvunluouoOw, and let 
every one huild his own house. 

11. With adjectives of quality, quantity, and ma gnilude, es- 
pecially when they stand without a substantive expressed, or 
in the predicate it serves to temper the expression by asserting 
the existence of the quality in a less positive and unlimited 
manner, such as may be expressed by the English words some- 
what, ill some degree, rather ; as, duoGixiog ng, somewhat 
difficult to be passed; duauudr\g rcg, rather hard to learn. 
With numerals it means nearly, about. &c. ; as, dexu rivhg, 
about ten. So also with adverbs ; as, o/edov, nearly; a/edof 
ji, pretty nearly; nolo, much; nolo a, considerably ; otftfeV, 
nothing ; ovdiv ti, scarcely any thing. 

12. Without an additional adjective, rig has the sense of emi- 
nent, distinguished ; as, ev/srul xvg elvai, he boasts himself lo 

be SOME GREAT ONE. 

13. In the neuter gender it is also sometimes nearly redun- 
dant, being introduced apparently for the sake of sound. In 
such cases it is to be considered in the accusative governed 
by x<tT<\, and seems to strengthen the express : on; as, afire re 
tvLvjig £(by, not being at all a prophet ; [isyu tl xal deonioiov 
Teyvovqyriuu, a work evidently great and divine 



133. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, 191 

The Interrogative rig. 

14. The interrogative -jig, rl, is used in asking a direct 
question ; as, i / g enolrjae, who did it ? Though sometimes used 
in the indirect interrogation, bong is more common ; as, dav. 
wd^w, Tig (or more frequently bong) £noh]oe, I wonder who did 
it. Sometimes it is accompanied by the article 6r(g,who; to 
il what. Q Ocrng is also used interrogatively when a person to 
whom an interrogation is put repeats it before answering it ; 
as, ov d' el Tig (jti>dg(Qi> ; bong el<jC ey(& ; MexCav^ who are you? 
who am I ? Melon. 

15. As a predicate, t/, with tori following it, is sometimes 
accompauied by the subject in the plural ; as, davfxdita) rt nox* 
carl tuvtoc, I wonder what these things are. 

18. The interrogation xlg is often used independently of 
other words in the sentence, being governed by xaTa, or some 
such word understood, and may be rendered in what? as to 
what? &c. ; as, tco*' xl oocp&v eittox^Uoveg^ in what sort of 
wisdom are they expert ? Sometimes it is used for dice xl, 
or nobg il, what ? why ? on what account? enl x I, for what pur- 
pose ? 7i<bg xl, how ? So, xl de, but wliat ? 

Possessive Pronouns. 

17. 'I 'he possessive pronoun is in signification equivalent 
to the genitive of the pronoun from which it is derived, and 
while, like the adjective, it agrees with its substantive in gen- 
der, number, and case, yet other words at the same time often 
regard it as the genitive of the personal pronoun. Hence the 
following modes of expression, to guv fiovo u d (boy pa, equivalent 
to to gov uovov, &c., the gift of'thee alone, 'dovtfievog 
■riuTooz xe ply a xliog r^S* £ t Udv aviov, where ifiov agrees with 
*Uog in the accusative, and yet, as if it were the genitive of 
the substantive pronoun, it is coupled with nargog in the ge- 
tive, and followed by uvjov. So also vtiheqov le%og avxtbv, our 
own bed; xdc vusisga wur(OJ\ your own property; x-r\v ocpixeqav 
aur6;>*>, (scil. /(oguv) their own country. 

The same construction is common in Latin ; as, u mea ip- 
tim culpa" "Cum mea nemo scripta legat, vulgo recitaro 
timentis" " Beneficio meo et populi Romani." 

18. The same observation extends to possessive adjectives ; 
as, el de ue del yvvuixelug tc uoexr[g boon vvv ev %rjoeia eoov- 
toli, iivr\(jdr\vuLi, If I must also say something concerning the 
virtue of those women, who are from this time to live in 



192 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARTICLE. § 134. 

indowhood ; where yvrmxelag, is equivalent to the genitive 
iCor yviinxCov, to which ocrac refers. 

19. The possessive pronouns are employed only when an 
emphasis is required; in all other cases the personal pronouns 
are used in their stead ; as, natty i\aiOP^ our father, literally, 
the father of us. But ttwttjo ^uitegog means our own father. 

20. The possessive pronoun is sometimes used objectively , 
as, oo; nodog, not " thy regret" but "regret for thee-" juua 
toudsirjuaTa, not ''the lessons which, 1 give," but "the lessons 
which thou givest me." 

This use of the possessive corresponds to the passive sense 
of the genitive, § 1 42, Obs. 2. 

21. The possessive pronoun is sometimes put in the neuter 
gender, with the article for the personal ; as, to vuheoov for 
{)uelg ; tu.uu for eyd) ; to epbv for sue. Also without the article 
after a preposition ; as, fcV ^ueilgov (scil. d&uau) for iv ^utiv, 
in my house. 

■ 

§ 134. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARTICLE. 

Rule. The article agrees with its substantive 
in gender, number, and case. 

Exc. 1. In gender. The masculine article is often put 
with a feminine noun in the dual number (§ 131. Exc. 3) ; as, 
i(b yvvatxl, the two women. 

Exc. 2. In number. The article may be put in the plural 
when it refers to two or more nouns in the singular (§ 131. 
Obs. 1.); as, txl sfOrjt'arf tf xal "Horj, Alinerva and Juno. 

1. L\ general the article is prefixed to all nouns not used 
indefinitely. Nouns used indefinitely are without the article ; 
except when represented as in a peculiar state or relation; as, 
top y&qovta uldelvdvu /u»j, one ought to reverence an old man. 

2. The article is prefixed to nouns when they designate a 
class or species; as, o avQo(x>7i6g Ion Ovytdg, man is mortal. 

3. It is prefixed to abstract nouns when personified, or with 
a reference to something expressed or understood ; as, C H xa- 
'aLu vTzolufjovou elite, Vice interrupting said ; xr\v dXr\devav neot 
Tourwr, the truth concerning these things. 

4. When one noun is predicated of another, the subject of 
tne proposition is generally found with the article, and the pre- 



§*134. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARTICLE. 193 

dicate without it ; as, aov.bg syevsO' f\ nogy, the maiden became 
a wine skin. 

5. The article is prefixed to nouns to mark emphasis or 
distinction; as, 6 noXefiog ovx avev xivdvvwv, r^ 8s Elor\vrj 
dxivdvrog, war is not without dangers, but peace is free from 
danger ; (here the opposition, between 6 noXsjuog and % eiq^vrj 
renders both words emphatic, which is marked by the article 
prefixed;) 6 rau^Ti^g, the Poet, Scil. Homer. 

6. Proper names, when first mentioned, are without the 
article ; on renewed mention, they generally have it. But the 
article is never prefixed to a proper name followed by an ap- 
pellative with the article; as, Kvgog 6 Sacrdsvg, Cyrus the king. 

7. The article is generally placed before appellatives, and 
all words and phrases which are placed after a substantive for 
the purpose of definition or description ; such as a substantive 
in apposition, an adjective, a participle, an adverb, a preposi- 
tion with its case; as, — (axgdxyg 6 cpiloaocpog, Socrates, th% phi- 
losopher ; ol vouol ol ugxalov, the ancient laws, &c. 

8. Before a participle the article is to be translated as the 
relative, and the participle as the indicative mood of its own 
tense ; as, eloi ol Isyovre g, there are (ariose) who say. But, 

9. A participle between the article and its noun is to be re- 
garded as an adjective, and rendered accordingly ; as, ol vndg- 
yovjsg vbuoi, the existing laws. So also other words and phrases 
between the article and its noun, like an adjective, qualify 
the noun, and frequently have a participle understood; as, ^ 
ngbg rahiiag [irx%rj; scil. yevouivq, the battle against the Gauls. 

10. An adverb with the article prefixed is used sometimes as 
a noun, sometimes as an adjective; as, ol neXag, those near, 
i. e. the neighbours; r) ai>a> nolig. the upper city. § 130. Obs. 1. 

11. Adjectives, participles, adverbs, adverbial particles and 
phrases, used in the sense of nouns, have the article prefixed; 
as, ol Oi'rjrol, mortals; ol xoXaxevovrsg, flatterers; ^ u$gtov 9 
(scil. r^aegu,) the morrow; to tI, the substance; to noibv, the 
quality ; to nboov^ the quantity ; to (bg % the manner in which, &c. 

12. The article without a substantive, before dficpl or negi 
with their case, denotes something peculiar to, or distinguish- 

; in£ the person, place, or thing expressed by the noun ; as, ol 
negi dr { guv, those devoted to the chase, i. e. " hunters ;" to negi 
Adjmpaxor, the affair at Lampsacus ; rd ducpl nolf{iov,what be- 
longs to war; sometimes it is a mere circumlocution for the 

| noun itself; as, rd negi xr\v daagrtav, for $ diuugita. 

17 



1- i CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARTICLE. § 134. 

13. c Oi rceol, and ol afucpl, with a proper name, have the fol- 
lowing peculiarities of meaning; \ iz. \ . the person himself ; 
as, ol ducpl Ilotuiiov xul Ilavdoov, Priam and Fanlhous ; 2. the 
followers of the person named; as, ol neol sfo/ldaiuov^ihe com- 
panions of Jlrchidamus ; 3. the person named, and his com- 
panions and followers ; as, ol a^yi HeioioTgajov, Pisistralus 
and his troops. 

14. The neuter article in any case prefixed to the infinitive 
mood, (§ 173, 1.) gives it the sense and construction of the Latin 
gerund, or a verbal noun ; as, rod cpiloaocpeZv to ti]ieTv, inquir- 
ing is the business of philosophy ; to xultbg leyeuv, the speak- 
ing well. 

15. In the neuter gender, and in any case which the con- 
struction requires, the article is placed, 1. — Before entire pro- 
positions or quotations in a sentence construed as nouns; 
as, sail ds tovtwv jotrrj diayoou, to, <bg sxaara toviwv ^ipriaano 
olv jig, moreover there is in these a third difference, viz. the man- 
ner in which one should imitate each of these objects ; ex ds 
tovtu)v 6od(bg dv £%oi to "sgyov <f otidsv oveidog" but according 
to these views, the sentiment "labour is no dishonour" would be 
comet. 2. Before single words quoted or designated in a 
seutence ; as. to <T SfieZg oiav sl'nw, ify nbliv leyu,when I say 
you, / mean the stale ; to leyo, the word leyw. But in nouns, 
the article i 3 commonly in the gender of the noun ; as, to brofiu 
6 JWrjg.the name Hades. 

16. The article is often prefixed to possessive, demonstra- 
tive, distributive, and other pronouns, for the sake of greater 
emphasis or more precise definition ; thus, ijuog vlog, is mere- 
ly a son of mine; but o s/nog vlog, is my son. The following 
change of signification effected by the article may be noticed; 

ulloi, others ; ol allot, the others, the rest, 
allrj, other; t\allrj l Elldg, the rest of Greece. 

"nollol, many ; ol nollol, the multitude. 

ol nlelovg, the most. 

6 uvrog, the same. 

ol navjtg, (after numerals,) in all. 

ol oltyoi, the few, the Oligarchs. 

17. When the article is used with ouro; or sxelvog, the pro- 
noun must stand before the article, or after the substantive; 
as, ovzog o u-vj)0, or 6 dv^o ovrog, this same man. 

18. The article is frequently used alone, having its sub- 
stantive understood. This is the case when the substantive to 



nleiovg, 


more ; 


cxviog, 


himself; 


ndvieg, 


all ; 


6l(yoi, 


few ; 



1«*5. OP THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 



195 



which the article refers, being apparent from the connexion 
or sense of the passage, can be easily supplied. The neuter 
article is often thus used with the genitive of another noun, 
XQriaa, ngayua, &c., being understood. 1. In the singular to 
intimate what a person has done, is wont to do, or has befallen 
him; as, xal iov doxa pot, to tov ' iSvxeiov Innov nenovO&vau. 
and I seem to be in the same situation with the horse of Iby- 
cus 2. In the plural to denote every thin^ that concerns, 
arises from, or belongs to, that which the substantive express- 
es ; as, Tccqpllwp d'oddiv, the assistance of friends is no- 
thing; del (psgsLP t& tup Osqp, we must bear the visitation 
, of the gods. In the singular or plural, it is often merely a 
periphrasis for the substantive ; as, to or rd rtjg doyi^g, for i\ boy^ ; 
and an adjective, &c. put with such a periphrasis takes the gen- 
der and number of the substantive, and the case of the article; 
as, t« iav diaxopwp — Tzoiofi/ievoi, the messengers— considering.' 
19. The article combined with /ubp and de has in some de- 
gree the force of a pronoun, and is used in a distributive 
sense,— the article with p&v standing in the first member of 
the sentence, and with de in the parts that follow; as, top pi v 
erlua, top <T off, this one, he honoured, that one not; ol pip 
Bx{j6evop >0 l de eruvop, ot d e eyvupd'r m PTO, some played at dice, 
some drank, some exercised themselves. When governed by 
a preposition, fiep and ds are placed immediately after the pre- 
position ; thus, sp (lip ToTg — sv de Tolg. 

20. In the Ionic and some other writers, especially Homer 

and Herodotus, the article 6, % to, is very frequently used as a 

•relative, and sometimes as a personal pronoun; as, 'J x dkia 

Wsiyco top idelp ala^po t ua^ I fee from Achilles whom I am 

■i ashamed to see ; to pep fredajtTO, it (the child) was buried. 

§ 66. 2. 



§ 135. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

Rule III. The relative agrees with its ante- 
cedent in gender, number, and person; as, 

^ yvvv \p etfousp, the woman whom we saw. 

d&piJQ Sg fyds, the man who came, 

ra /q^uutu <2 stye, the things which he had. 
1. The antecedent is the substantive, or something equiva- 
lent to a substantive, (§ 138, Rem.) in a preceding clause to 

I 



196 OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. § 135. 

which the relative refers. Sometimes, however, as in Latin, 
the relative and its clause is placed before the antecedent and 
its clause. 

2. Strictly speaking, the relative does not agree with the 
antecedent, but with the same word expressed or understood 
after the relative, and with which like the adjective it agrees 
in gender, number and case, as well as person ; thus, 6 llnnog 
op ilnnov) el/e, the horse which (horse) he had. Hence, in 
connecting the antecedent and relative clause, the following 
variety of usage occurs ; viz. 

1st. The word to which the relative refers is commonly ex- 
pressed in the antecedent clause aud not with the rela- 
tive ; as,ovro; ian 6 o\v^q ovtldsg,this is the man 
whomjom saw. 

2d. It is often not expressed in the antecedent clause and 
expressed with the relative; as, olxog Ion op eldeg 
avdqa, 

3d. Sometimes when greater precision is required, it is ex- 
pressed in both; as, oljog eon o ccptjo op sldeg apdycc. 

4th. When the reference is of a general nature, and there 
is no danger of obscurity, the word to which the rela- 
tive refers is understood in both clauses ; as, op i]6£Iel 
txrape, op rfiilev eowoe, whom he would he slew, whom 
he would he saved alive. All this variety is common 
in Latin as well as in Greek. 

3. The antecedent is sometimes implied in a preceding 
word; as, olxla r\ tipsTioa ol ye xQ^o-de, &c. Your house who 
use, &c. where ol refers to the personal pronoun implied in 
-vueitou, (§ 133. 17.) 

4. When the relative comes after two words of different 
persons it agrees with the first or second person rather than 
the third; as, eiul d' ty<J) fiuoile-dg og n^ibuai. 

5. When the relative is placed between two substantives of 
different genders, it sometimes agrees in gender with the lat-j 
ter ; as. to ucttoop 'q p opou&^ovoip Aly a, the constellation which 
t/iey call the Goat. 

6. Exc. The relative sometimes takes the gen-; 
der and number, not of the antecedent noun, but, 
of ^ome one synonymous with it, or implied in 
it; as, 



! 



5 135. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 197 

1st. davov fG)y rex v bi v ov g^'ddgauTogrflaye, their CHILDREN 
having died, whom Adrastus led. In this sentence 
ovg refers to naldwr, as synonymous with xixvwv. 

2d. Ttaviwv av Q&noiv og xi ceu a/^ia el^, of every MAN, 
who shall come against you ; where og in the singular, 
referring to a plural antecedent, shews that the men are 
spoken of in the relative clause individually. 

3d. finko (xndorjg 'Ellddog &v naTsgocg exisivs, for all 
Greece, whose fathers she slew ; where oV refers 
» to the meaning of c Ell6c5og in this sentence; i. e. the 
men of Greece. 

4th. 6i]0~avQ07TOLbg dvrig ovg dfj xal BrcavveX to nVvfiog^ A MAN 
encr easing in loealth, whom even the multitude applaud. 
Here, though the antecedent d*'?]o is singular, the rela- 
tive ovg is plural, because it refers not to an individual 
man, but to the class or kind of men spoken of. 

7. Instead of og the compound pronoun oarig is used as a 
relative after yrag, ovdelg, or any word in the singular express- 
ing an indefinite number, and oaov after the same words in the 
plural ; as, nag (km;, every one who; ndvTsg oaoi, all \who ; and 
if the indefinite is not expressed in the antecedent clause the 
use of the relative shews that it is understood, and is to be ex- 
pressed in the translation; as, ro\g ndieig ocrai, all the cities 
which. Sometimes it is used simply for og ■ 

8. If no nominative come between the relativeand the verb, 
the relative shall be the nominative to the verb. 

If a nominative come between the relative and the verb, the 
relative shall be of that case which the verb or noun following, 
J or the preposition going before usually governs. But, 

Attraction of the Relative. 

9. Exc. I. The relative is often attracted into 
the case of its antecedent ; as. 

Examples, 1. ahv ralg va v a I v alg (for ocg) el/e, with the 

ships which he had. 2. ueiauxeTM r^g ^dovrig t\ g (for fy) 

£'Jo>^« -viuv, let him share the pleasure which I gave you. 3. 

; {iBUvrjuivog, &v enou^e, (for tw^ rcqayudww a ercoa^F^ see 

A No. 2. 4th) being mindful of what he did. 4. dnolavw w / ^o 

f&yaQibv, I enjoy what goods T have. (No. 2. 2d.) 

17* 



195 ON THE RELATED ADJECTIVE WORDS. § 130. 

Jfote 1 Thi rule of attraction seems to have its foundation altogether in 
euphony ; and hence generally attractions will be found only where they 
improve the euphony of a sentence. 

Note 2. This construction is sometimes, though very seldom, imitated in 
Latin ; as, Caes. de Bel. G. lib. V. II. Circiler sexcentas ejus generis cu jus 
supra d&monslravimus, naves invenit. 

10. Exc. II. The antecedent is sometimes at- 
tracted into the case of the relative; as, 

"Allov d' ov Oijv oldtt tsv <1p xXuTUTSv/ea dv(a, I know no»other 
person whose renowned armour I could put on. Here dllou is 
attracted from the accusative by the relative lev into the geni- 
tive. 

On this principle are to be construed such sentences as the 
following : ovdeva xlvdvvov ovuv ov/ vTrettisirav, for ovdeig r\v 
xlvdvro; ovTiva, there was no danger which they did not under- 
go ; oudspu eyuoav opup" ov dixxouopiu unooToeysodvu, for 
ovdeig i\v qvtiv* ecpaoav ov daxouoprix, &c. there ivas no one 70/10, 
they said, did not return weeping ; rivag jovod" ogu %£povg, foi 
live; elalp olioi ol $h'oi ovg 6ou) ; who are these strangers whom 
I see ? 

11. The relative plural, and in all its cases with ecru be- 
fore it, is used for, or rather is the original form of the adjec- 
tive epcoi, -ou, -«, some; {soil being sometimes written I'pi) ; 
as, xal eaji 0?, (i. e. epioi) ervy/cxpop Omqolkmp, and some hit 
breastplates ; unb twp nolewp eotlv tip (i. e. ivltovA from some 
cities. 

In this construction tor/ is found with oonc, both singular 
and plural ; as, ecru oang, some one; eon olxipeg, some. 

12. In certain cases it is used adverbially, some other word 
being understood; thus, ou, where ; rj, where, as far as, how, 
in what manner: and sometimes thus used, it is preceded by 
loii, the two words being* used as an adverb ; as, eaiip oh or 
epOu, in many places. 



§ 136. ON THE RELATED ADJECTIVE WORDS 

olog, ooog, fylxog, &c. 

1. The relative adjectives 0I0;, oaog, r\Uxoz, like the relative 
pronoun, always refer to a kindred word before them, express- 



§ 136. ON THE RELATED ADJECTIVE WORDS. 199 

ed or understood, implying a comparison of equality similar 
to talis qualis, tantus quantus, in Latin ; as, 

ToTog or roiovrog, — oiog, stick — as. 
Tocrog or jouoviog, — doog, so many — as. 
TTjlLxog — ffilzog, of suck an age or size — as. 

2. The antecedent and relative adjectives both refer to the 
same substantive, with which they agree in gender and num. 
ber, while each takes the case required by the construction of 
the clause in which it stands. Thus, Dem. Olynth- I. "As 
for the rest they are thieves and flatterers, and tolovtov g av- 
Ogibrtovg oiovg iisduadevrag do/Gladou joiavxa ola iy(b vvv 
oxi'6) bvoiihoai, such men as, w ken intoxicated, to dance such 
dances as / dare not name. 

3. The antecedent word is most commonly understood, and 
the relative is translated with some variety according to the 
connexion in which it stands. The most of the cases in 
which, e. g. oiog is used for joioviog oiog, may be reduced to 
three ; viz. 1st, when it stands before a substantive ; 2d, be- 
fore an adjective ; 3d, before a noun. ;V > 

4. First. Before a substantive, oiog elegantly takes the 
case in which its antecedent tolovto; would be. if expressed, 
and changes the substantive before which it stands into the 
same case by attraction ; thus, ova eotlv a vdg I ota> J? wxgar e t 
xpevdeoOai, to lie is not befitting such a man as Socrates is, 
for ovk ecFTLp avdgl toiovtql* oiog Zwxganig eortv xpevdsodai. 
Again, %ugC6uevov otco vol avdgl, gratifying such a man as 
thou art, for avdgl tckoutg) oiog ov (slg)» 

In some instances the noun after oiog is not attracted into 
the same case with it ; as, tco^ (toiovtqjv) oluvneg atirog oviwv, 
they being suck as he. 

When the substantive to which oiog refers is obvious from 
the connexion, it is frequently omitted, as in the preceding 
example. 

5. Sometimes oiog, with the clause in which it occur?, is ap- 
parently unconnected with the sentence. In such cases the con- 
nexion is to be formed by supplying (hg and on ; as, hwxagi- 
£ov tv\v [irjiegu (ort) otW Texvuv tuvgrjcre, tkey blessed the mother 
(because) she gave birth to such children. 

Of a similar nature are the Homeric expressions oV ayogsv- 
eig — oT eogyug, i. e. oil oT , &c. because you say — because 
$$ you do such things. 

\ 



200 ON THE RELATED ADJECTIVE WORDS. § 136. 

ft. The construction is the same when olog, or the substan- 
tive to which it belongs, is in the nominative, or is governed 
by a preposition ; as, ahflhg ayovrag nevdog (on joiomog) olog 
avrovg 6 Ovvvog diEcpvyev, being truly grieved because such a 
thuniny fish as this escaped them, Lucian; tlnl'Qovjeg n&yxv 
unoMeoOuv eg ola. x a x a. \xov, i. e. W£ £g rotavra ola xaxa, ex- 
pecting total destruction since they were come into such ca- 
lamities as these. In this way that difficult sentence in 
Thucydides is easily explained, xal iiovn (scil. \40rjvalMv no- 
Xig) ovie iidj 7iolef4[(o InzWbvn ayavfkxTijoiv £/si, vcp o2(dp xaxo- 
nuOeZ. i. e. &g tino loiovnav o2u)v ri/ueTg, and ive are now the on- 
ly state which does not excite indignation in an invading ene- 
my, because (or since) they suffer from such a brave peo- 
ple AS WE ARE. 

In all constructions of this kind, the idea will be readily 
perceived by considering olog as put for on or co? joiomog. 
See numerous examples in L. Bos. Ellipses, Gr. 271. Vi- 
gerus, Ch. 3. § 8—9. 

7. Second. Before an adjective it may be resolved by sup- 
plying the infinitive ehcu ; as, si fxev yaq Tig avr^q Iv aviolg eojt 
olog euneiQog noMuov, if any one among them is skilful in 
war, Dem. O. 2. for Toiovrog olog elvai etLtneigog, is such as to 
be skilful, &c. ; olog ocqloio;, the best, for loiovxog olog elvai 
uqioiog, such as to be the best, &c. 

S. Olog is frequently, however, joined with an adjective in 
the form of an exclamation or interrogation, apparently with- 
out reference to the usual antecedent; as, olog jusyag, olog /a- 
lenbg, how great ! how difficult! Thus Lysias, olog piyag xal 
deirug xlvdwog riyiovioOi], how great and terrible danger was 
risked, (scil. for the liberty of Greece.) If this and similar 
sentences, however, are thrown into the assertive form, they 
readily admit of the same resolution as the others; thus, dan- 
ger such as to be great and terrible was risked. 

9. Third. Joined with the verb sl/ul expressed or under- 
stood, and followed by an infinitive, it signifies " I am of such 
a kind as, or such as;" and, according to the connexion in 
which it stands, may mean " / am able," " I am wont" " 1 
am ready, or willing," — ioiovioq bein^r always understood as 
an antecedent word ; thus, ov y&g r { v olog and navxbg xfq- 
fiupai, (i. e. TOLovTogoTog,) for he was not (such) as to make 
gain from every thing. 

10. The abbreviated expressions olog slut, and olog t elut, 
are very common, and usually, but not always, observe this 



§ 137. CONSTRUCTION OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 201 

distinction; viz. that the former signifies ^ I am wont" the 
latter, " / am able, I can" and is equivalent to dura/Lieu ; as, 
olog ts elpl tovio noieZv, I can do this. 

In the neuter It is used impersonally; as, olbv re ecru, it is 
possible, 

11. Sometimes the verb ei/ul is also omitted; as, ^ dvvcuw 
tixoveiv ex tov fi^ oIovts (sXv av\ or whether he could hear 

FROM NOT BEING ABLE TO HEAR FORMERLY. 

12. In the same manner joXog or rowviog stands related to 
dog following it, expressed or understood ; as, otfx dcv dfid^aaifu 
joiovT(p y (scil. olog afiTog ecrrt,) I woidd have no intercourse 
with such a man, (scil. as he is), 

13. The neuters olov and ofa, either alone or combined with 
various particles, and used in a conjunctive or adverbial sense, 
are, no doubt, elliptical expressions similar to those noticed 
above, though it may be difficult to resolve many of them in a 
satisfactory manner. The ordinary meaning of these words 
will be found in the Lexicons. # 

Note. The observations which have been made on the construction of 
the related adjectives roTog or roiovrog — olog, are applicable, almost without 
exception, to rovog or roo-nvrog — oaog ; observing that the former relates to the 
quality of objects, the latter to their number or quantity. The same also 
may be said of rrj\iKog — nXiKog, of such an age or size. 



§ 137. CONSTRUCTION OF THE NOMINATIVE 

CASE. 

The nominative case is used, 

1st. To express the subject of a proposition. 

2d. In apposition with another substantive in the nomina- 
tive, or predicated of it. See § 139. III. 

3d. In exclamations ; as, 6 dvox&Xouva iyd) ! O wretched 
me! 

4th. Absolutely, or without dependence on any word in the 
sentence, § 178. Obs. 4; as, noXlri yao ^ argctri^ 
ovo~7j, ov ndcn]g eo~rai nolewg -vnode^auOai («i3r^), for the 
army being numerous, it will not be in the power of 
the state to accommodate them. Or without a participle ; 
as, 6 Morvorfi ofix oidauev tL yeyovev aik(2>, this Moses, 
we know not xvhat has become of him. 



202 A VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. § 138, 139. 

§ 138. OF A YERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. 

Rule IV. A verb agrees with its nominative 
in number and person ; as, • 

iy<h yg&cpw, I ivrtte. 

fifieTg TvTTiexe, ye strike. 

dyOixluij) X&fiTTSTOv, his eyes shine. 

Rem. The nominative to a verb may be a noun, a pronoun, 
an adjective used as a noun, the infinitive mood with the ar- 
ticle prefixed, or part of a sentence; and to all these this rule 
applies. 

Obs. 1. The nominative of the first and second person is 
generally omitted, being obvious from the termination of the 
verb ; also of the third person, when it may be readily sup- 
plied from the context ; as, leyovai, they say. 

Obs. 2. The subject is also omitted when the verb expresses 
an action usually performed by that subject; as, oalnltsi. the 
trumpeter sounds ; or when it expresses an operation of na- 
ture ; as, vet, it rains ;*6gorT<x, it thunders. 

Obs. 3. Impersonal verbs are usually considered as without 
a nominative ; still they will generally be found to bear a rela- 
tion to some circumstance, sentence, clause of a sentence, or 
infinitive mood, similar to that between a verb and its nomina- 
tive ; as, s^eait /uoi aniivai, it is lawful for me to depart, i.e. 
to depart is lawfid forme ; %qr\ ui noislv it behoves you to do it 9 
i. e. to do it behoves you. 

|fl 

§ 139. SPECIAL RULES AND OBSERVATIONS. 

I. Of agreement in number. 

Rule 1. A neuter plural commonly has a verb 
in the singular ; as, 

'Cjhu Totyet,, animals run. 

Obs. 1. This construction is more common with the Attic 
than with the Ionic and Doric writers. But with all there are 
many exceptions, especially when the neuter plural signifies 
persons or animals ; as, joadds Wvrj bgjoi'x.tevov, so many na- 
tions xcent to war. Homer joins a singular and a plural verb 



§ 139. A VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. 903 

with the same nominative. Odyss. 11. 43. So Xen. Mem. 
aoTQa aviopr^vav a r^uXv t&; tigag vr\g vvmbg e [icpav l?e i 9 

the STARS SHONE FORTH WHICH SHEW to US Hie llOUTS of the 

night. 

Obs 2. Sometimes, also, masculine and feminine nouns in 
the dual and plural have a verb in the singular ; as, ovx early 
olxivez unexopTai, there are none ivho abstain ; o\%&lTai 6«- 
cpal psMwv, the voice of melody sounds. 

Rule 2. Two or more substantives singular, 
taken together, have a verb in the plural ; taken 
separately, the verb must be in the singular; as, 

Together, ctldihg ds xal cpoOog eucpv- Shame and fear are 
to i sloi ap0g(b7t(p) natural to man. 

Separately, vol yag td^us vlxrjv Zsvg Jupiter and Apollo gave 
aal 'ujjiollwr, you the victory. 

Obs. 3. To both parts of this rule, however, and especially 
to the first, there are not a few exceptions; for it often hap- 
pens that when two or more nouns have a common verb, it 
agrees with one of them, and most commonly the one next it. 
Also, if the two nouns are of similar signification, they are in 
construction considered as one, and the verb follows in the 
singular; as, 2ol d' enl toIuutw xagdlrj xal Ovfiog, let your 
heart and soul dare. 

Obs. 4. A substantive in the singular, connected with other 
words as the subject of a verb conveying the idea of plurality, 
has the verb in the plural ; as, c Piu nuquluG-ovaa xalxovg Kogv- 
6 '« Piug neginolovmp, Rhea, having taken with her also the Co- 
rybantes, wandered about. So in Latin ; as, Juba cum La- 
bieno capti in potestalem Cozsaris venissent. 

Rule 3. A noun of multitude expressing many 
as one ichole has a verb in the singular; as, 

1%eto Xubg, the people sat down. 

But when it expresses many as individuals, 
the verb must be plural ; as, 

rigmtjo-av cctiibp to nlrfiog, the multitude ashed him. 

Obs, 5. To both parts of this rule there are also exceptions, 
and in some cases it seems indifferent whether the verb be in 
the singular or plural ; sometimes both are joined with the 



204 OF GOVERNMENT. § 140 

same nominative; as,e'Uro A«6c, 8QTjTv0i](jav dh xaOidgixg % 
the people sat down and kept their seats. 

Rule 4. A dual nominative may have a plural verb ; as, 
ty/gpa) elsyoi', bolk spake, and a plural nominative, limited to 
two, may have a verb in the dual. 

II. Of agreement in Person. 

Rule 5. When two or more nominatives are of different 
persons, the verb takes the first person rather than the second, 
and the second rather than the third ; as iy<h xul ax)eX7io^8v y you 
and I spoke. * 

To this rule there are many exceptions. 

III. Of the Nominative after the Verb. 

Rule 6. Any verb may have the same case 
after it as before it when both words refer to 
the same thing; as, 

■d/Lislg iajhro cp&g tovxoo/liov, ye are the light of the world. 

Note. This rule applies to the infinitive mood whether its subject be in the 
nominative or accusative; and also to the participles. § 175. Obs. 5. and 
177. 3. 

Obs. 6. Under this rule, ths nominative before the verb i* 
the subject, and the nominative after it, the predicate. § 126. 

Obs. 7. When the predicate is an adjective or participle, 
without a substantive, it agrees with the subject before the 
verb, by R. II : — Except as noticed § 131, Obs. 4. 

Obs. 8. In this construction the verb usually agrees with 
the subject ; sometimes, however, it agrees with the predicate; 
as, \o~uv d£ oT&diot, dxT(b to fieralxjitov uursW, the space between 
them was eight stadia. So also when the copula is a partici- 
ple; as, he usually let .go, rovg uiyiora i^iuaQTrjxorag — fi&ytorrp- 
81 ovaav (for ovtolq) 616l6t]v n6leu;, the greatest offenders 
BEING (or who are) the greatest injury to the slate. 



§ 140. II. OF GOVERNMENT. 

Government is when one word requires another which fol- 
lows it, or depends upon it, to be put in a certain case, mood or 
tense. 



i 



§ 141. OF THE GENITIVE. 205 

OF THE GOVERNMENT OF CASES. 

The construction of the oblique cases depends in general 
upon the following principles ; viz. 

1. The Genitive expresses that from which any thing pro- 
ceeds, originates or begins; or to which it belongs, as expressed 
by the English words of, from, in regard of, in respect of, &c. 
viz. as cause or origin. 

2. The Dative is the case of acquisition, and denotes that 
to which any thing is added, or to or for which it is done ; hence 
the end or remote object to which any action tends. It is 
also used to express the cause, instrument or means by which a 
thing is done, in which sense it usually depends on a preposi- 
tion expressed or understood.^ 

3. The Accusative expresses the immediate object on which 
the action or influence of a transitive verb terminates; or of 
motion or tendency to, expressed by a preposition. 

4. The action of a verb may be considered in reference 
either, 1. to its immediate object, i. e. to that on which its action 
is immediately exerted, and which is always governed in the 
accusative ; as, didovai buavxbv, to give myself ; or, 2. to a re- 
mote object (i. e. to one which is not acted upon by the verb, 
but is merely that to which the action is related in the manner 
expressed by the case), and is put in the genitive or dative orac- 
cusative, either after the accusative with an active verb, or without 
an accusative after a neuter verb ; as, dLnal&TTeiv xivb. vooov, to 
free any one from disease; didovai kuavjov ttj nolsi. to give 
myself to the state; cpetdeodai rebv sotepcov, to spare the kids; 
SorfieXv jy Tiaroidi, to aid (i. e. to render assistance to) my 
country. 



§ 141. OF THE GENITIVE. 

The Genitive is in extensive use in the Greek language, 

being used in many cases in which the ablative is used in 

Latin. Its primary as well as its general and leading idea is 

at of separation or abstraction, going forth from, or out of 

rigin, cause. So that the meaning of the words of, out oj, 

rom, is implied in the case itself. 

The numerous and diversified uses of this case are reduced by Matthias 

the following heads : 

I. In Greek, words of all kinds may be followed by other words in th« 



18 



-I 



206 OF THE GENITIVE. § 141. 

genitive when the latter class limits and shews in what respect the meaning 
of tne former is to be taken. When used for this purpose, they may usual- 
ly be rendered by such phrases as "with respect to," " in respect of;" thus, 

1. With verbs ; as, cog it o 5 w v z\x ov -> as f* ast as tnev could run, i. e. as they 
had themselves with respect to their feet ; Kahtig Zx €lv pi® rig, to have 
one's self well with respect to intoxication ; <j<pa\\eadai e\niSog, to be de- 
ceived with respect to hope ; Kariaya r f) g k e <pa\ fj g, I am broken with re- 
spect to my head, i. e. J have broken my head. 

2. With, adjectives ; ovyyvcojiMV rwi/ dvdp(oniv(x>v afxapTrjjjidTiov, 
forgiving with respect to human errors ; I'yyvg rrjg tto\c w ?, near with 
respect to the city ; y?j t:\eia Ka/c&v, a land full o/(i. e. with respect to) 
evils ; jxzi^oiv irarpdg, greater than (i. e. with respect to) his father. 

,3. With all words which represent a situation or operation of the mind, 
which is directed to an object, but without affecting it ; such as verbs signi- 
fying to remember, to forget, to neglect, &c. ; and adjectives signifying experi- 
enced, ignorant, desirous, &c, 

4. With all words which indicate fulness, defect, emptiness, and the like. 
Under this head fall adjectives signifying full, rich, empty, deprived of, &c. j 
and adverbs denoting abundance, want, sufficiency, &c. 

5. To this principle must be referred the construction of the genitive with 
the comparative degree, § 143. Rule XI ; with all words denoting superiori- 
ty, inferiority, and where a comparison is made with respect to the value of 
a thing ; as a'^iog rovrov, worthy of this, i. e. equal in value with respect to 
this ; or where the idea of difference is involved. 

6. When that ivith respect to which a thing is done may also be consider- 
ed the cause of its being done, the word expressing it is often put in the ge- 
nitive, and may be rendered "on account of;" as, yBoveTv nvi ooyiag, to 
envy one on account of wisdom. Hence it is used with verbs signifying 
to accuse or criminate, to pray, to begin, &c. ; and also without another word 
in exclamations. 

II. The genitive in Greek is put to express the relation of a tohole to its 
parts; i. e. it. is put partitively. Hence it is put with verbs of all kinds ? 
even with those that govern the accusative when the action does not refer 
to the whole, but to a part ; as, drrTfjaat k pe oov, to roast some of the flesh ; 

tyd) ol6a rcoy t\i 0) V r]\ i k I a> T <3 v, I kllOW SOME OF THOSE OF MY AGE. PlenCC, 

also, it is put with verbs which signify to share, to participate, &c. 

On this principle is founded the construction of the genitive of the part 
affected, after verbs signifying " to take," 1 ' " to seize," " to touch, 1 " &c. Hence, 
also, it is put with the superlative degree to express the class of which that 
one, or those marked by the superlative, form a part. 

III. The genitive is used to mark the origin or cause from which any 
thing proceeds ; and hence, the person or thing to which any thing belongs, 
whether it be a property or quality, habit, duty, &c. Hence, also, verbs gov- 
ern the genitive which express feelings and operations of the mind which 



§ 142. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. 207 

are the result of external impressions, or when they denote motions and ac- 
tions in bodies which are the effects of the operation of other bodies. Thus, 
verbs which express the sensations of hearing, tasting, touching, &c. as 
well as those which signify to admire, to care for, to desire, &c. are follow- 
ed by the genitive of the object, heard, tasted, touched, admired, or cared 
for, because it is viewed as the source, origin, or cause, of these sensations 
and operations. Hence also the common rules, that "verbs denoting 
possession, property, or duty, &c. govern the genitive ;" that "the material 
of which any thing is made is put in the genitive ;" and that "one substan- 
tive governs another in the genitive." 

IV. The genitive is also governed by certain prepositions, and by verbs 
compounded with prepositions ; that is to say, when the prepositions may 
be separated from the verb and placed before the genitive without altering 
the sense. 
I V. The genitive is used to determine place and time in answer to the 
question " where ?" " when V 9 &c. Hence the adverbs ov, xov, oirov, where ; 
which are, in fact, old genitives, and refer to part of place or time in general. 

To the general principles contained in these five heads may all cases be 
referred, which occur under all the following rules for the genitive. 



§ 142. I. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY SUB- 
STANTIVES. 

Rule V. One substantive governs another in 
the genitive, when the latter substantive limits 
the signification of the former ; as 7 

6 Qe<hv 7t«Tr/o, , the father of gods. 
civaS dLvdq&v^ king of men. 

Thi3 rule is founded on the general principle mentioned § 141. I and III. 
In the above examples the general term -rrarnp is restricted by the word Oetip 
governed by it. It is not any father, nor the father of men, but of the gods ; 
and the word ava£ which, without, restriction, means any king, is restricted 
by the word avfytiv, to king of men. 

When a noun is restricted by another of the same signification, it is put 
in the same case by Rule I. 

06s. 1. The noun governing the genitive is frequently un- 
derstood ; viz. 1. after the article such words as vlog, H T1 7£> 
OvyuTrjg, &c. ; as, MdiMrjg o Kiix(x)vo%, (sup. vlog), Miltiades, 
the son of Cimon ; xd jr\g ruxrjg, (sup. dcoo^uaia), the gifts of 
fortune. 2. Olxog or d&fia after a preposition ; as, &g narqbg^ 



208 THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. § 142. 

(sup. flfiyiff), to the house of her father; eig adov (dduov) to 
Hades; h ufiov, (Jo//q>), in Hades. 3. After the verbs sl/ul, 
ylvofiai, i37T(io^co, &c. See § 144. R. XII. and 141. III. 

Obs. 2. When the noun in the genitive signifies a person, 
it may often be taken in an active or passive sense ; thus, ?/ 
yvtbotg tov Qeov, the knowledge of God. In this sentence, 
God may either be the subject or the object of the knowledge 
spoken of, i. e. the phrase may denote our knowledge of God 
or his knowledge of us ; nddog vlov, generally, (not the regret 
of thy son, viz. which he has, but) regret for thy son; d^- 
Soog evusvsia roiovde, goodwill towards such a man. 

This passive sense of the genitive is more common when 
the governing noun is derived from a verb which usually 
governs the dative, and when the one substantive is in one sense 
the cause, and in another the object, of that which is expressed 
by the other substantive ; as, vsgrigwv dcoo^wara, offerings (not 
of but) to the dead ; svy/uaTa Ilallccdog, prayers to Pal- 
las; t) tcoj> JJlaTaiecov emoigarela, the march against the 
Plat.eans. 

Nouns thus derived, however, are more frequently followed 
by the dative; as, t\ Movo&uv docng avdg&noi a t, the gift oj 
the JVluses to men ; sometimes by the preposition slg with the 
accusative; as, Oe&v slg d v 6 g co n v g doaig, a gift of the 
gods to men. § 146. 

Obs. 3. Many substantives derived from words which 
govern the genitive, are often followed by a genitive governed 
by the force of the primitive contained in the derivative ; thus, 
tlevdegog nbvov, § 143, free from labour ; hence, elevdsgfcx n6- 
vov, freedom from labour ; xgarslv r]dov(bv, § 144. R. XV., to 
be superior to pleasures; iyxgoneta r\dov(bi>, mastery over or mo- 
deration in pleasures ; axgaieta ^<Wc5i', subjection to or want 
oj moderation in pleasures ; imxougrjua jr\g /wvog, protection 
against the snow. 

Obs. 4. Sometimes the genitive after a substantive is £0 
verued not so properly by the substantive as by a preposition 
understood. These generally express the material of which a 
thing is made, or the author or source from which it proceeds, 
§ 156. Obs. 3. ; as, oiicpavog (e?) ixvdlimv^ a crown of [flowers ; 
yulxov uyuluu (scil. ex) a helmet of brass ; nevOog (tino) dat/ud. 
vuv, grief sent from the ggds ; (v<p) " Hgag dlaxtXa^ wanderings 
caused by Juno. 

Note. In this way, perhaps, the examples, Obs. 3. may be resolved ; as, 

iXevQcpia dird n6vov. 



§ 142. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. 209 

Obs. 5. A noun in the genitive, after another of the same 
kind, denotes either the highest pre-eminence, or the lowest in- 
feriority; as, fiixadeT fiuotlswv, to the king of kings; dovlog 
doviwv, a slave of slaves. 

Obs. 6. A number of substantives followed by the genitive of 
a noun, or a possessive adjective formed from it, are often put by 
a kind of circumlocution for the noun itself. The chief of these 
are, 67a, i's, [ihog, strength; xt}q, the heart ; cp66og, fear; nel- 
Qag, rikog, teIevt^ the end ; depag, a body ; xdga, xagrjvov, xe- 
cpalri, the head, &c. ; as, Sia K&oiogog, for K&oTog, Castor; 
6h] 'Hgaxhjeh], for c Hgay.lr\g, Hercules ; relog Oixv&tov, for da- 
vutoz, death; 'Ioxdoi^g xaga, for 'Ioxdamj, Jocasta, &c. 

O6.9. 7. Sometimes one substantive governs two different 
genitives in different relations ; as, fined we rwv *I& vmv r\v 
T\yeiAOvlr}v r ov ngbg Aagsiov noXe [io v. he assumed the leading 
of the Ionians in the war against Darius ; T&volxsl- 
wv ngonrfkaxloeig tov yr\Q0jg, the insults OF relations TO 

OLD AGE. 

Obs. S. The Attics use a noun in the genitive, preceded by 
a neuter article, for the noun itself; as, to t% iv/rjg for f\ ivy^ 
fortune; t dc x (bv 6 a g6d g u>v aniojd ^oxvifox ol 6dg6agoi } \ the 
barbarians are not to be trusted. 



Rule VI. An adjective or article in the neuter 
gender without a substantive governs the geni- 
tive ; as, 

to nollbv vr\g crToaT^g, the greatest part of the army. 
t& ttJs TijjT/c, the gifts of fortune. 

Obs. 9. The adjective in the neuter gender is either itself 
considered as a substantive, (§ 131. Exc. 9.) or as having a 
substantive understood, which is properly the governing word. 



Rule VII. A substantive added to another to 
; express a quality or circumstance belonging to 
it, is put in the genitive ; as, 

<xvr\o lAeyuhjg doerr^, a man tif great virtue. 

Obs. 10. The substantive in the genitive has commonly an 
adjective with it, as in the example above, but sometimes not; 

18* 



210 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. § 143 

as, nolefxo; ovx ottXuv dlld d and v r\ g, a war, not of we a. 

PONS, but OF MONEY. But 

Obs. 11. The substantive expressing the quality or circum- 
stance of another, is more commonly put in the accusative go- 
verned by Kara and did ; as, dvr\q onovdalog zbv tqotco v , a 
man of ingenuous disposition. 



$ 143. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJEC- 
TIVES. 

Rule VIII. Verbal adjectives, and such as 
signify an affection or operation of the mind, go- 
vern the genitive ; as, 

dvdgtinwv dqlriiLMDv, hurtful to men. 
%{ineiQog [iovoiXT]g y skilled in music. 

Rem. The principle on which this rule is founded is contained in § 141. 
I. 1. 2. But others suppose that the foundation of the principle, as well as 
of the rule, is to be sought in the ellipsis of a preposition, such as mpl, which 
is sometimes expressed ; as, xepl rtiv texv&v Irnvrfiptav, skilled in the arts. 
However plausible this supposition may be, it militates strongly against it 
that we have the same rule in Latin^in which there is no preposition that 
governs the genitive. The stronger probability is, that the rule in both lan- 
guages is to be referred to the same general principle already referred to. 

Under this rule are comprehended, 

1. Adjectives denoting action or capacity, which are deriv- 
ed from verbs or corresponding to them, especially those in 
-jog , -ixog, and -rjQiog. 

2. Many adjectives compounded with a privative (§ 122. 1. 
1st.) ; as, ddeujog xal dv^xoog dndvTwv^ without seeing or hear' 
ing of any thing. / 

3. Participles used in an adjective sense, especially among 
the poets ; as, necpvy^ievog diOlojv, jree from troubles ; olatrcop 
eldibg, skilful in augury. 

Note. These, however, are often followed by the accusative ; as, eidds 
ddenHTTia, skilled in wickedness. 

4. Adjectives expressing a state or operation of mind ; 



^ 143. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 211 

as. desire, aversion, care, knowledge, ignorance, memory, for- 
get fulness, profusion, parsimony, and the like. 

5. Adjectives derived from, or of a similar signification 
with verbs which govern the genitive ; as, entxovgog ipv%ovg } 
cntovov, x.t. I. serviceable against cold, darkness, &c. 



Rule IX. Adjectives signifying plenty or want, 
&c.., govern the genitive; § 141. 1. and 4.; as ? 

fieoxbg OoqvSov, full of confusion, 
soqfiog dvdgwr, destitute of men. 

Under this rule are comprehended ? 

1. Adjectives of fulness, plenty, and want; value, dignity, 
worth, and the contrary. 

2. Adjectives expressive of poiver, eminence, superiority, 
and their opposites; also, of participation, diversity, separa- 
tion, peculiarity, or property, and the like. 

3. Adjectives followed by the genitive of the cause; as, 
ddliog Ttjs iv'/rjg, miserable on account of fortune. 

Note. Adjectives of plenty and want sometimes govern the dative ; as, 

dcpveids [xrjXois, abounding in fruits. 



Rule X. Partitives, and words placed parti- 
tively, comparatives, superlatives, interrogatives, 
indefinites, and some numerals, govern the geni- 
tive plural ; as, 

1. xtstv ccvOq'Jmuiv ol usv cro(pol, of the men some were voise^ 

ol d' ov, others not 

2. oi naluiol Tibv itotrjT^v, the ancient poets* 

3. sv t&v nloimv, one of the ships. 

4. Tcoonbg 9 sfOq*>alwv, the first of the Athenians. 

5. 6 v&oitsqo; xcov udelcpajp, the younger of the brothers. 

6. e/Oiowg ducnUu)^, most hated of kings. 

Rem. For the principle of this rule ? see § 141. IL It has also been sup- 
posed that the genitive under this rule is properly governed by Ik or dn-d. 
The same remark made R. VIII, Rem. is also applicable here, and for the 
same reason, viz. that the same rule holds in Latin which has no preposi- 
tion governing the genitive. 

Obs. I. All words are denominated partitives which express 



212 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. § 143. 

a part of any number or class of objects, the whole being ex- 
pressed by the noun following it in the genitive. 

Obs. 2. The genitive after the partitive is sometimes govern- 
ed by the preposition ix or 3| ; as, t£ dnaawv i) xuXUottj, the 
most beautiful of all. And sometimes, instead of the genitive, 
there is found a preposition with another case ; as, xallioiri lv 
wig yvvcu^l, fairest among ivomen; so in Latin, justissimus in 
Teucris. 

Obs. 3. Instead of the genitive, the case of the partitive is 
sometimes used ; as, rovg ytlovg rotig fihv unexieive, some 

OF HIS FRIENDS lie slew. 

Obs. 4. The partitives ilg and slg are sometimes omitted ; 
as, goeoo) 001 a xoXriv t (b v x a X 1 1 a t co v (sc. /ulav), I bring you 

A VERY EXCELLENT ROBE ,* T}6eXe X G) V [ISVOVTWV Slvai (sC. elg,) 

he desired to be one of those ivho remained. On this prin- 
ciple is explained such phrases as Jerri t&v alo%o<bv (sc. elg) y 
for loil alaxgog, he is base, (literally " one of the base.") 

Obs. 5. Partitives agree in gender with the substantives 
which follow in the genitive. When two substantives follow 
in the genitive, the partitives, &c. commonly agree with the 
former, but sometimes with the latter. 

Obs. 6. Collective nouns are governed by partitives in the 
genitive singular. 

Obs. 7. Adjectives in the positive form, but conveying a su- 
perlative sense, on the principle of this rule govern the geni- 
tive plural; as, e^o^og Tz&vmr, the most excellent of all ; dla 
Qe&ojp, goddess of goddesses, (i. e. supreme goddess) ; dla 
yvvuixVov, most excellent of loomcn, daiiiovie avdywv, Good 
sir. Also nouns compounded with a in a privative sense ; as, 
ct/ulxog ticmldwr, unarmed with brazen shields. 

Obs. 8. On a similar principle an adjective in the genitive 
plural sometimes accompanies substantives of all kinds, in 
order to mark the class to which the person or thing mention- 
ed belongs; as T(x>/og too j> xEpa/usix&v, a wheel of the class 
of the earthen, i. e. an earthen wheel; niXexvg j<bv v a v- 
7t7]y ix&v, an axe of those belonging to ship-builders. 



Rule XI. The comparative degree governs 
the genitive ; as, 

yXvxaav /uifojog, sweeter than honey, 

xgelaawv olxngpov cpddvog, envy is stronger than pity. 



§ 143. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 213 

Rem. The principle of this rule is stated § 141. 1 and 5. There is not 
ttie same objection to the usual explanation of this rule, by supplying the 
preposition irpd or dvrt, that is stated Rule VIII, Rem. Yet the analogy of 
ihe cases already referred to are opposed to this explanation, and seem to 
render it more proper to refer to the general principle above stated. At the 
same time it must be noticed, that after the comparative degree the genitive 
is sometimes governed by one of these prepositions expressed ; as, olaiv ^ 
Tvpawls "fo h\evdepiris r}v daTraarorepov, to whom tyranny was more 
agreeable than libertt ; but this will not decide in favour of explaining 
the construction under this rule by supplying the preposition, any more than 
it did in the other, Obs. 2. 

Obs. 9. The conjunction % than, after the comparative is 
usually followed by the same case that precedes it ; as, en ikv- 
dgug tloXv auslvova; t) 2xv0ag, against men much braver than 
the Scythians. Sometimes, however, it is followed by the 
nominative, if sl t ul or another word can be supplied; as, rolg 
Wswtegoig 3} ey<b, to those younger than I am. 

Obs. 10. After the comparative, r\ is sometimes followed by 
an infinitive with or without &; or wore ; as, xaxa /usl?® 3] wars 
avuxluteiv, evils too great to excite my tears ; vdcrrjjua [xsZZ.ov $j 
qtigeiv, affliction too great to bear. 

Obs. 11. The comparative without 3j (than) is followed by 
the genitive according to the rule ; as, cpwra ykvxegmega 7) 
fiehxr^qo), a voice sweeter than honey-comb*. 

Obs. 12. The genitives tovtov and ou, governed by a com- 
parative, are often followed by an explanation with *j ; as, oix 
tozi jovde txumjI zalliov yegag 9 ?] nargbgecrOXov xayadov necpuxivai, 
there is no greater honour to children than this, (viz. than) to 
be descended from a brave and virtuous father. 

Obs. 13. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence being 
equivalent to a noun, (§ 173. I.), is' sometimes governed in 
the genitive by a comparative; as, to cpvl^av t' ayada xov 
y.ti] a u.u dai /a X entire gov earl, to preserve property is 

MORE DIFFICULT THAN TO GAIN IT. 

Obs. 14. Words which imply a comparison govern the ge- 
nitive on the same principle ; these are 

1st. Such words as express difference ; as, negLTcrog, devregog, 

voxegog • also, di&cpogog, eiegog, allog, allolog, <*M6rgiog. 

2d. Multiplicative numbers; as, dml&cnog, rginlaooog ; as, 

d initiator del tixovsiv rovleyeiv, one should hear 

TWICE AS MUCH AS HE SPEAKS. 

Obs. 15. The superlative is sometimes used for the com- 



214 THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 144 

parative, and is then subject to the same rules ; as, (with the 
conjunction, Iworov r) to tyUygag n e 5 lov, better than the plain 
of Phlegra ; (without the conjunction), aelo d' oviig avi)g iiax&g. 
r«rog, no man is happier than yon. 



§ 144. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

Rule XII. The person or thing to which 
any thing belongs, is put in the genitive after ef^i, 
ytvofiac, v7tap%cd ; as ? 

£utI tov Gaadeojg, it belongs to the king, 

elvai kavTov, to be his own (master). 

tov xal&; Ttolsfieiv t6 alacrity is necessary to fight 
idileiv eail, well; i. e. belongs to it. 

% Rem. For the principle of this rule, see §141. III. Consistently with 
this, in constructions of this kind, a substantive may be considered as un- 
derstood, which is the governing word. 

Obs. 1. Yet here also we have the genitive governed di- 
rectly by a preposition expressed, indicating that from which 
the quality, &c. proceeds; as, ovx sotl ngbg noleMg, it is not 
proper for the state; i. e. it is not a thing proceeding from 
the slate. On this principle are to be explained such senten- 
ces as the following ; ovx ayuuav tovt dvdgbg do ta ri o g, I 
do not approve this in a prince ; i. e. ngbg dvdgbg, &c from 
a prince ; tovto bttccIpw 'A y r\ o vkdov, I commend this in Agesi- 
jiAUS ; tovto (teiKpovzoa uuclicria ^ ( «w v^ this they blame chiefly 

IN US. 



Rule XIII. Verbs expressing the operation of 
the senses, govern the genitive ; as, 

Klvdl fiEv, Hear me. 9 

fir] uov utitoV) touch me not. 

Exc. 1. Verbs of seeing govern the accusative; as, Qebv 
fiyovTui) they shall see God. 

Exc. 2. In the Attic dialect all verbs of sense govern the 
accusative ; and sometimes, though very rarely, in the other 
dialects ; as, r\xovou qpG)*>^j>, / heard a voice ; ankdyxva in&o-ap- 
to, they tasted the entrails. 



I 



§ 144. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 215 

Obs. 2. The principle on which verbs under this rule, and 
some of those that follow, govern the genitive, is that the 
word in the genitive, following the verb, is viewed as the ori- 
gin or cause, in some way or other, of the sensation, or of the 
act or state expressed by the verb, § 141. III. 

Rem. If, after verbs which usually govern the genitive, the genitive is 
governed by a preposition interposed, the preposition generally corresponds 
to the idea of origin or cause, &c. expressed by the genitive (as, ch-d, irpds, 
and the like) ; and thus, instead of militating against the principles stated 
above, it adds its own force to that of the genitive, giving emphasis and dis- 
tinction to the sentence. But to suppose from this that when the genitive 
follows a verb it is always governed by a substantive or preposition under- 
stood, besides being wholly unnecessary on the principles already stated, 
serves only to destroy the original and characteristic simplicity of the lan- 
guage, and to render its construction perplexed and intricate. 



Rule XIV. Verbs signifying an operation of 
the mind, govern the genitive ; as, 

dotvu&^o) crov, / admire you. 

auilsig j(hv yllmv, you neglect your friends. 

Verbs which come under this rule govern the genitive on the principles 
stated, § 141. I. and 3. also III It applies generally to verbs which 
signify 

1. To pity, to spare, to care for, or neglect; as, imfielsTcr- 

dui, yqovTi^&iV) aXeytQeuv, dueleZr, bliyoqeXv. 

2. To remember or forget ; as, uvaoQai, /llptjuovsvslp, kav- 
davevdai, &c. with their compounds. But friese fre- 
quently govern the accusative. 

3. To consider, to reflect, to perceive or understand; these 
also govern the accusative. 

4. To admire, to aim at, to desire or to loathe, to revere or 
to despise. 

Obs. 3. Many of th^se verbs used transitively; (i.e. signify- 
ing to cause the operation of mind they express) govern the 
accusative of the person with the genitive of the object , as, 
■6rtbuvrj(jBP fc Karoo;, he put him in mind of his father ; eysvoag 
fie svduvuoviag, you have caused me to taste of happiness. 
Verbs thus used are sometimes denominated causatives or in 
centives, and hence the 



216 THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 144. 

Rule. Causatives govern the accusative of 
the person with the genitive of the thing. 



Rule XV. Transitive verbs govern the geni- 
tive when they refer to a part only, and not to 
the whole of the object; as, 

%me tov vdotTog, he drank of the water. 

This construction depends on the principle stated, § 141. II., or we may 
consider the expression elliptical, and supply some such word as, (twos, a 
par£, or ri, some, as the direct object of the verb, and which governs the gen- 
itive according to Rules V. and VIII. 

To this rule belong more especially such verbs as signify 

1. To share, participate, or impart, which, with the genitive 
of the thing, frequently govern the dative of the person 
to whom it is imparted ; as, fisradtd^ut too ddelcpw t&v 
XQrjpaTMv, I share the property with my brother. 

2. To receive, obtain or enjoy ; as, t^utj? slays, he gained 
honour ; iav hxSwuev <J'/olr\q, if we get leisure. 

3. Verbs signifying to take, to seize, and their contraries ; 
to touch, or to carry, especially in the middle voice .with 
the accusative of the whole, govern the genitive of the 
part affected; £hx6ovio tv\q 'Q&vy g tov Oqovzriv, they 
seized Orontes by the girdle. 

Exc. Some verbs such as lauS&vouai, fieTi/co, y.Xrjqovo[iino 9 
Xayz<xi>Q>, Tvyy/jLvm, sometimes govern the accusative of the 
thing ; xlrjoovojx&ixi with the accusative of the thing, governs 
also the genitive of the person from whom it is received ; as, 
ialrjoov6uqoe tov najobgidt, Kir\uaza, he inherited his possessions 
from his father ; sometimes it governs the genitive of both. 



Rule XVI. Verbs of plenty or want, filling or 
depriving, separation or distance, govern the gen- 
itive; (§ 141. I. and 4.) as, 

ev'jioqel '/otju<xt(dv, he abounds in riches. 

XQvoov vrji/ododQ vr\a 9 let him fill his ship with gold. 
delodai xqtju6.to)v, to be in want of money. 






§ 144. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 217 

Under this rule there may be comprehended verbs which ex- 
press the general idea of separation, or which signify 

1. To beg or entreat ; as, dso/ual aov, I beg of you, 

2. To bereave or deprive ; as, aTSgsw, dTiooisgio. 

3. To deliver, loose, or set free ; as, elsvdegow, kvco, drta- 
Idacrco. 

4. To escape; as, excpevyco, dlvoxw. 

5. To keep off] to hinder, or prevent, to desist ; as, x<olvw, 
igrjTEvw, £/co, (scil. TLV(JL rivog} el'gyo/uai,, &c. 

6. To differ from, to be distant, to abstain ; as, dis/a, 
dns/a, dialdiTco, diayega), dns/o/uai,. But some verbs 
of differing govern also the dative ; as, diayegoj ooi, I 
differ from you. 

7 To separate, repel, or drive away ; as, zoglt®, diogltoj, 
duvpoj, dldlxw, dyslgo), dnhxo), &c. 

8. To make way for, or retire from, to resign; as, si'xw, 

fino/ojoew, tindyw, o~vy%a)geoj. 

9. To err, to cause to err; -unonlavdouai, dTtoTvyxdvo/uai, 
duagrdva), nlavda), 

10. To cease, to cause to cease ; as, nav®, navopai, dr^yo), &c. 

11. To deceive, frustrate, or disappoint ; as, ipevdofiau, 
Ttxalo), aydlloijcu. &c. 

Obs. 5. Many of these are transitive ; and with the gen- 
itive of the remote object, govern the accusative of the direct 
object; thus, under No. 3. as rovd^ HevC/toti cpopov, I clear vou 
of this murder; dcpaignudu^ to deprive, sometimes governs 
the accusative and genitive, sometimes two accusatives, and 
sometimes the accusative and dative. 

Obs. 6. The genitive after these verbs, whether trans, or 
intrans. is sometimes governed by a preposition intervening, 
the effect of which is to give emphasis to the expression ; as, 
£k8vdeowju; tt { v c E)J/xdu dnb Mrfiiav, having liberated Greece 
from the JMedes. § 144. Rem. 



Rule XVII. Verbs of riding, presiding over, ex- 
celling, and the contrary, govern the genitive , 
, (§ 141. I. and 5.) as, 

nollav Idvwv ag/eiv, to rule over many nations. 

r(br noayudTojv lixioTaxslv, to have the superintendence of affairs. 

19 J * 



218 THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 144. 

The verbs which come under this rule are those which sig- 
nify, 

1. To rule ; as, «o/co, xqcxIvm, deondtco, dvvaoxevio, i$ov- 
aiu^a), avdevjea), xaTaxvQieva). 

2. To reign ; as, rvqavvevu), Oixcnlevco, dv&oact). 

3. To lead ; as, rfieouvu, riysfxoveva), crTgaT7jy£u. 

4. To preside over ; as, BitiajajiM. 

5. To survive, or to be over ; as, ttsqIsiiuv. 

6. To surpass, or excel ; as, nqmevw, {meqSalvtx), neqiS&X- 
hx), diuq)8oa)y rceqiylvouai. 

7. To begin, i. e. to be first, to lead the way; as, aq/o- 
/uai ; so &Q/w 9 tirzuqxM, xaTtcq/U). 

8. The contrary are such as signify to be ruled, led, pre- 
sided over, &c ; to obey, to be inferior to, to be worsted 
or overcome. 

Obs. 7. Some verbs govern the genitive by the force of a 
noun implied in them ; thus, jvqaweveiv is equivalent to tv- 
qavvo; ehou; and hence hvqaweve Koqlvdov, he was king of 
Corinth is equivalent to ivqawog ty Koqlvdov. 

Obs. 8. Many verbs under this rule sometimes govern the 
dative ; as, av&croM, orjualvo), xqccTm, ^yeo/nav, Tjye/uovevto aq/d). 
And sometimes the accusative. 



Rule XVIIT. Verbs of buying, selling, estimat- 
ing, &c. govern the genitive of the price ; as, 

&vija6tfif]V tovto 7i iv u d Qa x/u&v, I bought this for FIVE 

DRACHMA. 

u^tovicn d inlr\s t i ur\ g, he is estimated worthy OF 

DOUBLE HONOUR. 

Rem. The genitive in this construction is properly govern- 
ed by (xvi l understood, sometimes expressed. The price is 
sometimes put in the dative with the preposition inl. and 
sometimes in the accusative with the preposition nqbg. 

N. B. — For the construction of the genitive with the accu- 
sative, see § 151 ; also, for the genitive governed by adverbs, 
see § 164, 165; by prepositions, § 168. and as used to ex- 
press certain circumstances, § 156, 157. and from § 160, to 
163. 



§ 145, 146. THE DATIVE AFTER SUBSTANTIVES. 219 

§ 145. CONSTRUCTION OF THE DATIVE. 

The dative has, in general, two significations : 

1. It is used to express the remote object to which any quality or action, or 
any state or condition of things tends, or to which they refer ; which ten- 
dency is usually expressed in English by the words to or for. ' As thus used, 
it corresponds to the dative in Latin, and is subject to nearly the same rules. 

2. To this general character of the dative may be referred a use of this 
case common in the best Greek writers, when the dative of the person to 
whom the thing spoken of may in some way or other be interesting, is 
thrown in without any dependence for its construction on any word in the 
sentence, and when the sentence as regards syntax is complete without it 
In such cases the dative is said to be redundant. But though it is so in re- 
spect of construction, it is not so in respect of effect, as it imparts a touch of 
feeling and sentiment easily felt, but not so easy to express in a translation. 
Thus, >j fifjTrip la as iroieTv o,n dv 6ov\rj, Iv 1 avrrj fxaKapig r)g (Plat. Lys.) thy 
mother permits thee to do whatever thou pleasest, in order that thou mayest be 
happy, (to her). The avrrj is added with reference to the feelings of the 
mother. The datives pot and <roi are very often used in this way. Thus, 
Oedip. Tyr. 2. rivets -nrod 1 sSpas raaSs poi Bodgere; where ejioi intimates the 
mournful interest the good king felt in the scene before him. In Xen. Cyr. 
Cyrus addressing his mother, says, oi/xai ao i &<dvovg — vikwsiv &c. J have no 
doubt that I id ill easily surpass these; where <roi intimates the delightful in- 
terest an affectionate mother might be supposed to feel in the event antici- 
pated. So in Latin, Quo tantum mihi dexter abis, Virg. iEneid V. 162. 

3. It is used to express that with which any thing is connected as an ac- 
companiment, cause, instrument, manner, means, or end. This connexion 
is usually expressed in English by such words as with, by, from, in, for, or 
o?i account of. U.-ed in this way, it corresponds to the ablative in Latin 
both in meaning and construction. 



§ 146. OF THE DATIYE AFTER SUBSTANTIVES. 

Rule XIX. Substantives derived from verbs 
which govern the dative, sometimes govern the 
dative also ; as, 

ri tov Oeov doaig valv, the gift of God to you. 

-r] lv t<5 TioliucD jotg opiloig fior\- the assistance of (i. e. vender- 

deiu, ed to) friends in war. 

ig avrdoyiav xoig $vuu<xxoig, for the contradiction of your 

allies. 
Because dlduiu, Sorjdeu), and <kvxil4yin, govern the dative. 



220 THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. § 147. 

Obs. 1. The dative often follows a substantive in the sense 
of the genitive, for which construction with examples, see 
§ 148. Obs. L 

Obs. 2. The dative sometimes depends on an adjective and 
substantive joined together, but chiefly on account of the ad- 
jective ; as, hIelvov Oalog tiutqI, illustrious offspring to the 
Jalher. 

Obs. 3. The dative sometimes follows a substafltive, not, 
however, as implying possession, but where the idea of adap- 
tation or design is implied ; as, x s 9 u ^ v ^ovog, labour for the 
hands ; i. e. adapted for, designed for. 

Obs. 4. The dative is also put with substantives to express 
the idea of companionship, being governed probably by our or 
djtwlojg understood ; as, (ai») -bneijOvvog el tolg alXovg^you 
are responsible, as well as (or equally with) the rest. 



§ 147. OF THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJEC- 
TIVES. 

Rule XX. Adjectives signifying profit or 
disprofit, likeness or unlikeness, govern the da- 
tive ; as, 

dcpilfo/uog ttj ndlei, profitable to the state. 
ouolog tQ naxql, like his father. 
The dative after such adjectives expresses the object to 
which the quality expressed by the adjective refers ; and hence 
all adjectives in which such a reference is involved, are fol- 
lowed by the dative of the object to which they relate. In this 
class, besides those mentioned in the rule, may be reckoned, 
1st. Adjectives signifying usefulness, friendliness, equality, 
suitableness, resemblance, ease, fitness, agreement, and 
the like, with their contraries. Hence, 6 avrog, the 
same, and sometimes elg, one, and roiouTog, such, are 
followed by the dative; a^, tlc ccvto. (ravia) ntxer/oj 
o oi, I suffer the same things with you. (So in La- 
tin, Invitum qui servat, idem facit occidenti. Hor. 
He who preserves a man against his ivill, acts the 

SAME PART WITH THE MAN WHO KILLS HIM) ; 0£ i/iiol 

[i tag lyivei ix /it y te go g, who was of the same (of 
one) mother with me ; Idyoug tg5 — xoioviovg Xiyeiv, 
to speak such words as he would. 



§ 147. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 221 

^ Exc. Adjectives signifying likeness, equality, &c are some- 
times followed by the object of comparison, not in the dative, 
but in the same case with the adjective, and connected with it 
by the conjunction xal ; as, ofoog ye 6 Uyog spoiye doxel av 
oiio i,og slvaixal ttqoteoo; (instead of sJixxitw tzqotsqq), this ar- 
gument would seem to me at least to be like the former. 
So also the nominative is used after the adverbs vara ravra, 
o.wo/coc, i'aag; as, ov% ouolwg nenoirpacn xal °0/Li?]goc, they 
have not done like Homer; xaia xaviu olrog ^/rjae xal xM- 
g«, just as a harp. These constructions are probably to be 
resolved thus, olxog ye 6 Uyog xal ngbiegog doxel, &c. ofnog xal 
xiduga rtfjjae, &c. 

2d. Adjectives compounded with ovv, opov, and /uera, sig- 
nifying with ; as, vvvrgocpog, o t uogog, /ueTalriog Tivl, &c. ; 
yet sometimes these govern the genitive. 

3d. Some adjectives derived from verbs which govern the 
dative, govern the dative also ; as, axoUvQog, axolovd^ 
Tixbg, dtadoxog. 

Obs. 1. There are many adjectives which govern either the 
genitive or dative ; as, ofiovog, like; Voog, equal ; dfitivvpog, of 
the same name ; dfiondrgiog, of the same father ; ofiofi^jgiog, of 

the same mother ; avvigocpog, educated together ; avv-fflyg, fami- 
liar ; looogoTtog, of the same jorce ; xoivbg, common; nlovolog, 
wpvsiog, rich; evnogog, abundant; evdey\g, poor; lvo%og, imb- 
bixog, tiTtetOwog, exposed, obnoxious; olxelog, familiar ; kviog, 
to be sold j dovlog, a slave ; IXeWegog, free ; as, ouoiog jov na- 
tooc, or t<3 naiol, hke his father ; b t u(bvv{uog jov naigbg, or t<3 
ftargl, of the same name with his father. 

Obs. 2. It has been observed, § 80, Obs. 1. that the verbal 
adjectives in -rbg and -reog have a passive signification corres- 
ponding nearly to the Latin verbals in -bilis and -dm Their 
construction, when thus used, is also similar ; and hence the 
following 



<) 



Rule I. Verbals in -rog and -veog, signifying 
passively, govern the dative of the doer; as, 

tovto ovgrjTbv lail uoi, this is not fit to be spoken by me. 

-?! Tibhg tirpelrjTeu not eon, the city ought to be served by thee. 

Rem. The dative, however, in this construction, when it is 
general in its nature, is commonly omitted ; as, rifirjiia iorlv 
' doerrj, virtue must be honoured, (viz. ttfiXv, by us.) 

19* 



222 THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 148. 

Obs. 3. Verbals in -t6?, not signifying passively, govern 
the case of their own verbs ; as, eX tq5 iju^j zardql fie/uniog al/ii, 
if I blame my husband. Soph. Trach. ; uipavaibg ey%ovg, not 
having touched the sword. § 80. Obs. 1. 



Rule II. The neuter verbal in -tsov, in the 

sense of the Latin gerund, with the dative of the 
doer, governs also the case of the verb from 
which it is derived ; as, 

ravra nuvia noirjieov fxov. ALL THESE THINGS must I do. 
toXguhi' finuo/ovat vo^iotg xqi]Ot&ov, xccivo-ug dh slxr\ 

firi Oeieov, we should use the present laws, and not 

rashly enact new ones. 

Obs. 4. The doer is sometimes put in the accusative, in 
which case the necessity involved in the verbal is much weaker 
than iu the ordinary construction ; as, ov dovlsvieov rovg vovv 
%%ovxaq Tolg xaxag opoovovav, the prudent ought not to 
obey the unwise ; zmcrytenTbov iu fihv atirov, ra de yvvalxa 
(for uurw, yvvuLxl), some things are to be looked to by him, 
some by his wife. Both are united by Plato, Rep. 5. otixovv 
xul vulv vevoTeov — bk-nl'Cpvjag. 



§ 148. OF THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

Rule XXI. The verbs slfti, <y{vo[zcu, and vrt&p- 
£o, signifying to be, or to belong to, are followed 
by the dative of the possessor ; as, 

uttI urn xQ^uara, possessions are (belong) to me, i. e. I have 
possessions. 

Tilly nuTdag l\aay xulol xuyuOol, good children ivere to Tel- 
his. i. e. 'Fellas had good children* 

Obs. 1. On the principle of this rule may be explained the 
numerous instances, both in Greek and Latin, in which the 
dative signifying possession is used with another substantive ! 
apparently for the genitive. Thus, Tilhp ol naldsg is equiva- 
lent to Ttllnv ol 7talde;, the children of Tellus ; but the prin- 
ciple of construction is different. In the latter expression, 
the genitive is immediately governed by the other substantive, 
ol nuldeg, by Rule V., and signifies the children proceeding 



^ 148. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 223 

from, and belonging to, Tellus. In the former, the dative is 
i not governed by the substantive, but depends on some part ot 
1 the substantive verb understood ; thus, Telly ol naldeg, (ol ov. 
re;,) Tello jilii (qui sunt,) the children which are to (belong- 
ing, or added to) Tellus ; or, without a periphrasis, "the chit 
Mr en of Tellus." In this manner may he resolved all such ex- 
pressions as owe ds ol, his two eyes; duy&nig re ol, her daugh- 
ter ; T(2> Avdouiuovi 6 T&cpog, the sepulchre of Jindrozmon, &c. 

Rem. 1. This mode of expression with the dative is so nearly synonymous 
with the more common construction with the genitive, that it appears often 
to have been a matter of indifference which of them was used ; so much so, 
> that a sentence sometimes begins with the one construction and ends with 
} the Other; thus, rjfxtv Ss KarsKXdfrdr] <pl\ov rjrop Ss i crav r oi v fOoyyov ts 6a- 
piiv ; literally, the heart to us dreadin t g his growling voice was broken doxon. 
In this sentence Ssktclvtojv refers to hp?v as if it were jfyt a>i/ in the genitive. In 
the following sentence the order is reversed ; rrjs & avrov \vto cpi\ov rjrop 
xTfiuara dv a yv ov a y, her heart was moved when she recognised the 
tokens. Here avayvoveri in the dative, refers to rfjs in the genitive, as if it 
had been 7-J7. 

Rem. 2. In other instances in which the dative follows a substantive ap- 
' 'parently for the genitive, the idea of tendency towards, or of acquisition or 
^addition, expressed in English by the preposition to or for, is generally ap- 
: parent 5 as, rrarpl rifxcopdv $6vov, an avenger of your father's murder ; plainly 
I an avenger of murder to or for your father. Indeed, the idea of possession, 
( ane of the meanings of the genitive, and ot acquisition., the proper idea ex- 
|,| pressed by the dative, are so nearly allied as to render the use of the one 
! sase for the other not unnatural. 

*f Obs. 2. When of two nouns in the dative the one expresses 
impart of or something belonging to the other, the latter may 
3e rendered as the genitive, and the construction explained as 
n Obs. 1 ; yet it may be often better to consider them in ap- 
position, both depending on the same governing word — the 
me term being: added to limit or define more precisely the 
Tiore general idea contained in the other ; thus, in the sen- 
ence ovx 'sty u a £ a v v 1 r^vhuve duuoj ; the dative ' ytyaiieuvopv 
\. Inay be considered as regularly governed by ^^«re(R.XXTI. II. 
I.), and duuti added in apposition, more particularly defining 
he part affected ; as, he did not please Agamemnon ; viz. his 
nd (his feelings.) So also the following examples : 
xoauov ov ucpiv (brraorsv Zf-v; y £ v e 1, an ornament which 

Jupiter gave to them. viz. their race. 
fxaorvohi ds aoi tt { yv&firi (the oracle) bears witness for 

ME, i. e. FOR MY OPINION. 



i 



224 THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 148. 

Til the following sentence, instead of the second dative, wc 
have the accusative with xara: viz. r^de de /uot, xazCx. Ov/uo* 
(xQlcrrr] (pairs to @ovfa\, but this counsel seemed best to me its 
respect of my feelings ; i. e. this counsel pleased me 
most. 

Rem. 3. The correctness of this view of the construction is also rendered 
more probable from the fact, that the same apparent tautology is used when 
the word to be limited or defined is connected with words which govern the 
accusative ; as, ti Se a e <p p iv as Iketo -kevQos ; what grief has invaded your 
mind ? Where, instead of saying that oe is the accusative used for the geni*| 
live aov according to one mode of resolution, or that <ppiva$ is governed bv 
Kara, understood according to another, it appears better to consider ok as the 
general direct object, and ppivas as in apposition, defining more precisely the 
part affected as in the above examples; thus, c< ichat grief has come upon 
you : viz. your mind." So in other instances ; as, 

Tpcoas Si rpo^os virfjXvOe yvla ck a a rov, trembling came upon the Trojans: 

EVERY ONE IN THEIR LIMBS. 

rov ye XiV 6 a r i a 9v[x<>s dyf/voip, the noble soul left him / viz. his eody i\ 
Ip iv eov rd/jivE v eov s o p tt tj k a s, he cut the WILD FIG TREE, ITS YOUNO 
BOUGHS. 

Obs. 3. The dative of some participles and adjectives ia 
joined with the dative after the third person of slpl or yUo^ia^ 
for the verb itself; these are such as fiovXousvog, -)]d6up.vog, ax~ 
Odusvog, nooodeyjyixevog, tiyuav, aopevog, &c. ; as, sV oov fiovlo- 
juivc) ear/, for si ftouA^, if you are willing ; otide auTcu axovn r\v v 
nor was he unwilling ; ffinuEroioiv tjuIv ol Xoyoi yeyovuoi, wc 
were pleased with your discourse. This construction has been I 
imitated in Latin; thus, Tacit. Agr. 18. quibus bellum volen- 1 
tibus erat, who were inclined for toar. So Sallust, Jug. 100. 

Obs. 4. Somewhat similar to this is the construction of the; 
dative with the participle oj* adjective expressive of some feel- 
ing or emotion, after verbs signifying to come; as, 

twidvr^ <$' liiol fyde, he came to me delighted, (scil. with his 1 
coming); i. e. / am delighted that he is come. 

nodovi'Tt Ttoouyuv)];, thou comest to me earnestly icishing it , j 
i. e. 1 earnestly wished that thou wouldst come. 

Obs. 5. To this rule also belongs the construction of such I 
phrases as il croc xal ifiol (scil. uoivhv botI) ; what have I to 
do with thee ? (literally, what common thing is there to you j 

AND ME? 



.! 



§ 148. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 225 

Rule XXII. All verbs govern the dative of 
,he object to which their action is directed ; as, 

svyovjo deolg, they prayed to the gods. 

dvaSXsnsLv nvl, to look up to any one. 

\40r\vv{ /eTgocg arso/ov, they lifted up their hands to JVlinerva. 

Rem. 4. This rule may be considered as general, applying to all cases in 
p hich a verb expressing action is followed by the dative, the action not 
eing exerted upon, but simply directed to the object expressed in the dative, 
[ence, if the verbis trans, it will govern also its immediate object in the 
3cusative (§ 152) ; ifintrans.it will be followed by the dative only. More 
irticularly to this rule belong 

I. Verbs expressing action, compounded with snl, 7tgbg, slg, 
va, &c. These prepositions serve to mark more precisely 
ie direction of the action, or state of action to an object. 

Ohs. 6. These verbs sometimes govern the accusative by the 
•rce of the preposition with which they are compounded; as, 
, rsaigaievoe rtofov, he waged war against the city, § 169. 

Obs. 7. Hence the dative in this construction generally is 
[uivalent to the preposition elg, ngbg, snl, &c. with the accu- 
tive. Further, to this rule belong 

II. Verbs which signify 

1. To profit or hurt ; to please or displease ; to reverence or 
to yield; — fo she'iv ; to seem ; to appear. 
I 2. To favour or assist; aud the contrary, to pray to, or 
entreat. 

3. To command, exhort, or address; to obey or disobey ; to 
serve or resist. 

4. To fit or accommodate ; to use and resemble. 

5. To give to, or to trust; to approach, to meet or to follow. 

6. To reproach with, to censure, to reprimand or rebuke, to 
be angry with. 

Exc. did) or diouai, I ask, governs the genitive ; and ho- 
uixi and XiTav&6a 9 always the accusative. 

Obs. 8. Many of these verbs sometimes govern the dative 
sometimes the accusative, according as their action is 
•'^ved by the writer as directed to, or exerted upon, the object, 
j the former case they are viewed as intransive verbs ; in 
1 e latter, as transitive. 



226 THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY IMPERSONAL VERBS. § 149,, 

Rule XXIII. V-erbs implying connexion or 
companionship, govern the dative ; as, 

ojbulelv tivi, to associate with any one. 

In this construction the dative is considered as correspond 
ing to the ablative in Latin. (§ 145. 3.) To this rule belong 

1. Verbs compounded with ovv, ofiov, [ieT&, (with) ; as, avtr^u 
tivi, to live with any one. 

2. Verbs after which afiv, u t uov, /ustcx, may be supplied con- 
sistently with the sense, such as those which signify 

(1.) To jollow (with), to converse, to mix, to be reconciled, 

to dwell (ivith.) 
(2.) To contend, or strive with or against, &c. 

Obs. 9. Verbs signifying "to contend" &c. in one point o! 
view mav come under the principle of Rule XXII, and hence 
are sometimes followed by an accusative with ngbg ; but then 
they signify more properly "to attack." 

Obs. 10. If a dative of the manner or instrument (§ 158.'; 
follow the verb fiiypv^n, to mix, instead of the dative of the per-! 
son associated with, the genitive is used, governed by the word 
in the dative ; as, Mala di,bs ev cpiXojrjTi {iiyeTaa, J\laia\ 

BEING EMBRACED BY JUriTER. 

Note. To the principle of this rule may be referred the construction of the! 
dative, expressing repetition or succession ; as, OvsWa OveWrj, storm upon\ 
storm ; liWov <T av aAXw TrpoaiSoig, l you might see one and then another, (scil< j 
rushing to the regions of Pluto.) 

For the d itive, construed with the passive voice, see § 154^ 



§ 149. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY IMPER- 
SONAL VERBS. 

Rule XXIV. Impersonal verbs govern the! 
dative; as, 

%ZeaxL uni, it is law fid for me. 

edo$e uviQ, it seemed proper to him (i. e. he determined)* 

Obs. 1. Rule. Arf, e'XXcLTtEt, Sca^spetj [letsa^h 
(i&^tj svbe%6tai, and Ttpoanxet, with their com- 



;. 



I 



§ 149. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY IMPERSONAL VERBS. 227 

pounds, govern the dative of a person with the 
genitive of a thing ; as, 

del TTollcbv gov, you have need of much. 

fiereoTt uoi wvtov, I t&ke part in that. 

il di ngocrrixsi ifiol KoqivOlcdp, what are the Corinthians to me. 

For the principle of this rule, as it respects the genitive, 
see § 144. R. XV. 1. 

Rem. 1. The dative of the person is frequently omitted. 

Rem. 2. The nominative agreeing with the impersonal is 
frequently used instead of the genitive; as, dvacpigei xl ooi tovto 
or lovTov, how does this concern you ? 

Exc. I. Id and %pri frequently take the accu- 
sative of the person with the genitive of the 
thing ; as, 

ov yag aw tie dsT OeoTtLoudrcop. for I do not want your oracles, 
ovde it as /otj raving ucpgoovvrjg, you have no need of this folly. 

Obs. 2 From analogy the derivative substantives xgeti), xgsla), 
XQsia^ are often construed with the accusative and genitive ; 
as, eus de XQ b ® yiyveiab atfjijc, / have need of it: rig #of/« 
a' iuov, what need have you of me? 

Exc. II. %p/?, 7tjj£7itt, and Set, it behoveth, govern 
he accusative with the infinitive; as, 

Xgtj (f{uag) noiTioadQav xr\v elo^vip^ we ought to make peace, 
oocponioov; yag del 8goT(bv It behoves those who are 

blvai deovg, wiser than men to be gods. 

Obs. 3. The dative is used in certain phrases in which it 
ippears to depend on an impersonal or some other verb under- 
;tood : viz. 

1st. After &g to show that a proposition is affirmed, not as 

^nerally true, but only with respect to a certain person ; as, 

puxgdcv &g yegovTt Trgovcriulrjg odor, you have travelled a 

long way for an old man ; scil. co? qpalrerav yigovTi, 

long, as it appears to an old man. 
inetoeo el ysvvcuo; cb g IdovTt,, but since thou art noble in 

appearance ; i. e. ck elx&aui loil idovTi, as a person 

having seen you may suppose, 

2 1. To express the opinion or judgment of a oerson with 



228 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. § 150. 

Dr without 6^ : as, a' £y<b il^oa ToXg cpoovovcriv ev, I have 
done honour to you according to the judgment of, the 
wise ; i. e. &g doneX roXg, &c. as it appears to those who are 
mse. Hence the common phrase, <hg i t uol, or &g f l^ol (scil. 
)oxeX), according to my judgment. 
For the dative governed by adverbs, see § 165. 



§ 150. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 

The accusative in Greek, as in other languages, is used 
to express the immediate object of a transitive verb, that 
on which its action is exerted, and which is affected by it ; 
as, hiuSuvw tt { v u o 7i Id u^ I take the shield. When used to 
express the remote object of a verb, or after verbs proper- 
ly intransitive, it is governed by a preposition understood. 

Rule. XXV. A Transitive verb, in the active 
or middle voice, governs the accusative; as, 

yvadi oeuvibv, know thyself. 

r\onatov ti\v n6Xiv y they plundered the city. 

dyaOor dvdod nuag. thou ho?wurest a good man. 

Obs. 1. Several verbs in Greek are used in a transitive 
sense, and have an accusative as their immediate object, 
which in Latin are considered as intransitive and followed 
by some other case. These are chiefly the following"; viz. 

1st. netdix) ; as, neideiv tiv& 9 to persuade any one. 

2d. iSgltta- as, fiftql^eLv uvu, to insult any one. Some 

times el'g nva. 

3d. d')r/Jo)] as, ddtxeXv tivu, to injure, or do injustice tc 

any one. 

4th. Several verbs which signify to assist, to profit, to in- 
jure ; as, (bcpMix), fii/qui,, evsgysjea), 6l&Ttr(b, and with 
these verbs the adverbs more, very, are expressed by tha j 
accusative neuter of the adjectives nlt-lav^ (xeyag, viz. 
nleov, /uiya. 

5th. The verbs ufielGofxav, dviaiielSouai, TifMogeouai,; as, d/uel- 
SeaOoci iiva, to remunerate any one ; n^geXodal ri^va. 

Nole 1. Some of these verbs govern other cases, but then they generally 
convey a different idea ; thus, d><pe\ e Xv riva, to assist any. one ; axpsXsTt 
rivt, to be useful to any one. 



§ 150 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 229 

Obs. 2. Many verbs are followed by an accusative, not 
of the object on which the action is exerted, but to which 
it has an immediate reference. Verbs thus used are pro- 
perlv intransitive, and the accusative is governed by the 
fore* of a preposition in composition with the verb, or un- 
derstood after it. These are such as the following; viz. 

1st. TtoocFKvvm ; as, ngooKvveXv nva, to bow the knee to any 

one, to adore. 

2d. dogvepogio) ; as, dogvcpogslv ava, to be a spearsman to 

• any one. 

So also, 3d. sTnigonsveiy, to be a tutor or guardian. 4th. 
lavddveiv, to escape the notice of, or to remain unknown 
to. 5th. cpddveiv,to come before, prevent, or anticipate. 
6th. iitiksineiv^ to be wanting to, or to jail. 7th. dno- 
didgaoxeiv, to run away from. 8th. diro/ud/saOaL, to 
ward off ; duvvvai or ejuogxers tivu., to swear by any 
one. 

9th. To these may be added intransitive verbs expressing 
some emotion or feeling ; as, to be ashamed of or afraid 
of any one; to compassionate any one, &c. &c, which 
are followed by the accusative of the object; thus, al- 
dovvTai tov; dgzovzaz, they respected the riders; itg dp 
jade yrjOtjosLSi'; who would rejoice at these things? al~ 
yelv ti, to be grieved at any thing ; OaooeTp zv, to take 
courage with respect to any thing. The accusative 
in such cases may be governed by a preposition un- 
derstood ; as, btiI, tifoI, jccaa; or by the participle of an 
active verb to be supplied; as, bg&v dxovwv, Sic. seeing, 
hearing. 

Note 2. Instead of the accusative many of these verbs are often followed 
oy & genitive or dative, according to the rules for these cases. 

Obs. 3. Rule. The infinitive mood or part of a 

B sentence is often used as the objectcfa transitive 
verb instead of the accusative ; as, 

Aiyu ndvia; elo-cpsosiv, I say that you should all contri- 

bute. 

de^dioj &; o&c alrjdr] liyoi, let him show that I do not speak 

the truth. 

Note. The infinitive is also used instead of the genitive and dative afte? 
verbs governing these cases. 

20 



230 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. § 150. 

Obs. 4. In constructions of this kind the object of the verb 
is frequently expressed twice. First, in a noun or pronoun 
in the case required by the verb, and Secondly, in a dependent 
clause ; as, avOg&novg re olda ola nenbvQaoi tjtt' tgMiog, I know 
men what things they have suffered from love ; I&vag QpoGhddfjri 
{neTufJdclXuwi, you jear the Ionians lest they revolt ; do' i/nov 
(ituvrjode onoXa enoaaaop ; do you remember me what things I 
did? -This construction is especially common with the de- 
monstrative pronoun in a sort of apposition with the clause 
which is the object of the verb, § 133. 5. 6. The English 
idiom requires these and similar sentences to be rendered as 
follows : u I know what things men have suffered from /ore"— 
" You fear lest the Ionians revolt" — " Do you remember what 
things I did ? 

Obs. 5. The accusative is often governed by a transitive verb 
or participle understood ; as, as di\ — (pr\g dedoaxevcu idds (sc. 
t'owiw), but thee, ( I ask) dost thou confess thou didst these 
things ? 6 de t^v nogcpvgldu (sc. ££coj>), the man with (having) 
the purple robe. 

Obs. 6. In this way the words ovo/ua, vipog, nlrfiog, evgog, 
and others are frequently construed in the accusative ; as, In- 
nodgouog oradtou to nlarog (sc. e%uv), a racecourse (liaving) 
the breadth of a stadium. 

Obs. 7. In like manner the accusative, apparently in appo- 
sition with an entire proposition, or placed in the beginning 
of a sentence to express the leading idea, may be considered 
as depending on some preposition or verb understood; as, 
EXivriv XTdtvumsv Msvile^lvni]^ tilxouv, Jet us slay Helen (sc. tig, 
in order to; or, noiovvxsg, causing) bitter grief to JYlenelaus ; 
(it]t£ou de — #<// I'rco (I. e. neol or xaidc /u^TiQa), as to your mother 
— let her return. 

Obs. 8. Rule. An intransitive verb used transi- 
tively governs the accusative; as, 

Ttolsfiftv n6Xs[iop y to wage war. 
This is done 

1st. When the accusative is a substantive of a similar 
signification with the word that governs it; as, tft. 
6lop ridiarov, he lives a very agreeable life. 

Note. To this principle of construction may be referred such phrases as 
fooveiv fxcya (scil. (poovrijia), to be proud ; dOdvara fx$v (ftpovei (sc. 0<oo»/J7/*ara,) 

think as becometh an immortal, 



§ ]51. VBRBS GOVERNING ACCUSATIVE AND JGEN1TIVE. 231 

2d. When they only signify to cause that state or feeling 
which they express as intransitives ; as. f^sv /e/o«, he 
caused the hand to move forward, i. e. he stretched out 
the hand ; at nriyal y tov o i yula xal [leXi, the fountains 
caused milk and honey to flow ; i. e. the fountains 
flowed with milk and honey. So Virgil ; 

"Et durre quercus sudabunt roscida mella." 
Ohs. 9. A passive verb used in an active sense governs 
the Accusative, § 74. Ohs. 5. § 154. Ohs. 4. ; as, r\qvrjvTai 
"toqeIuv, they refused a conveyance. 






§ 151. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE 
AND GENITIVE. 

Many active verbs, together with the accusative of the di- 
rect object, govern also another word to which the action has 
an indirect or remote reference, in the genitive, dative, or ac- 
cusative, as the nature of that reference may require. 

Rule XXVI. Verbs of accusing, condemning, 
acquitting, and the like, govern the accusative 
of the person with the genitive of the crime; as, 

dtfbxouou ere dsdiac, T accuse you of cowardice. 
urrolvu as ti\; airlag, I acquit you of this blame. 

The genitive after verbs of accusing, is often governed by 
a preposition or some other word interposed, by which the ex- 
pression is rendered more emphatic ; as, 

eyguipuTo (us) tovto)i> uvtcov tvsxa, he accused me of these same 

things, 
dubxu ere Tieql Oav&xov, I accuse thee of a capital 

crime. 
(pFvyeiv err' alita cpovov, to he accused of murder. 

Ohs. 1. Verbs of accusing, &c. are such as ene^iu^ yo&- 
<f,ouai, duoxw, InaLTiunuai. to accuse or criminate ; (petyto, to he 
accused, or to defend ; alosu) to gain one's suit ; ak®ui< to lose 
one's suit; dix&'m, to judge; luy*/6>v(a, to commence a suit; 
Irnl.auGuA'ouut and avTihtu6(kvo i uixv 9 to blame, &c. <jc.ttoXvw, acpl- 
ijfii, (jLJioipr^fl'^ouuL, &c. to acquit. 

Obs. 2. Verbs of this signification compounded with xaj& 
take the person in the genitive, and the crime or punishment 



232 VERES GOVERNING ACCUSATIVE AND DATIVE. § 152. 

in the accusative; as, xaryyooovGi gov otuuiv, they charge 
sedition against you. Sometimes the crime or punishment is 
also in the genitive; as, xuTayirwoxw gov davdrov or Ouvaiov; 
but the punishment seldom with any word except O&v&tov, and 
the crime only alter xajrjyooeix) ; aSynaoavouuv avrov xajr t yootXv. 
Obs. 3. Yerbs of accusing- sometimes govern the dative ; 
as, eyxatib ool rtgoodootav, I accuse thee of treason. 



Rule XXVII. Verbs of hearing, enquiring, 
learning? &c. govern the genitive of the person 
with the accusative of the thing; as, 

r\xovo6 tov dyyelou raiJra, he heard these things from the 

messenger. 
rtwddveoOal rl uvog, to hear any thing from any one. 

The genitive under this rule is probably governed by a pre 
position understood ; as, and, ex. 



§ 152. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE 
AND DATIVE. 

A transitive verb governs the accusative and dative when, 
together with the immediate object of the action, it is followed 
by the person or thing in relation to which it was exerted. 
The more common constructions of this kind are compre- 
hended under the following rule: viz. 

Rule XXVIII. Verbs of comparing, giving, 
declaring ; promising, and taking away, govern 
the accusative and dative; as, 

timo/vtouul uoi dexa xalavTot, I promise you ten talents, 
loiyov uiwi'ui Tolz alloig, to avert the plague from others. 

Obs. 1. After verbs of promising, declaring, and the like, 
the promise or declaration, forming part of a sentence and 
sometimes a number of sentences, often stands as the accu- 
sative with the dative of the person ; as, 

'stteS'ivdoog o\niGTfc).F 70ig a Ellr/Gi< Osov a-vrov tyrjcp la a G. 
Out, Alexander ordered the Greeks to vote him a god. 

tine fiOi Tl «l)TO) X ^ ^ * e ^ me WHAT YOU WOULD DO 
WITH HIM. 



§ 153. VERBS GOVERNING TWO ACCUSATIVES. 233 

Obs. 2. Instead of the dative of the person the accusative 
with nqbg is often used; and sometimes without it. 

Obs, 3. In all constructions under this rule, both in Latin and Greek, the 
verb together with the accusative after it, are to be regarded as expressing 
the amount of what is done to the remote object in the dative. Thus in the 
expression narras fabidam surdo, the words narras fabulam express the whole 
amount of what is done (surdo) to the deaf man. With verbs of taking aivay, 
the English idiom requires the dative to be rendered by from; as, eripuit mild 
gladium, he forced the sword away from me. On this account, some have sup- 
posed that the dative in such expressions in Latin is governed by some such 
word as exlstentem understood ; and others, to obviate the difficulty, have 
given the Greek an ablative. All this perplexity arises evidently from over- 
looking the principle of the construction. While the English idiom expres- 
ses that from which a thing is taken away, the Latin and Greek, with no 
less elegance on the general principle of the rule, express in the dative that 
to which the act of taking away is done. Thus in the above expression, eri- 
puit gladium together, expresses what is done (mihi) to me. So also Te- 
rence : Seni anhnam extinguerem ipsi ; — adolescenti oculos eriperem, to 
the old man, I loould put out the breath; — to the young man, I would 
tear out the eyes. In Greek, Qe/jaaTi Sekto Senas, to Themistis, he took 
away the cup ; i. e. taking away the cup was what he did to Themistis ; ac- 
cording to the English idiom, he took away the cup from Themistis. [See 
Hunter's Notes on Liv. B. I. Chap. I. line 2. iEneae Antenorique, &cj 

Obs. '4:. Verbs of giving, govern the genitive and dative 
when their direct object is in the genitive, according to Rule 
XY. ; as, peiadldoj^L vol twv %oifiuonwv, I share the property 
with you. 



§153. VERBS GOVERNING TWO ACCUSATIVES. 

Many verbs have the accusative not only of the nearer and 
mm$} immediate object of the action, but also of the more remote 
object ; i. e. the person or thing to which the action with its 
immediate object passes, usually preceded in English by the 
preposition to ; hence, 

Rule XXIX. Verbs of asking and teaching, 
clothing ', concealing, depriving ; speaking or 
doing well or ill, and some others, govern two 
accusatives, the one of a person the other of a 

thing ; as ? 

20* 



234 VERBS GOVERNING TWO ACCUSATIVES. § 153. 

SrjSalovg xq^uaja r^jTjuav^ they sought money from the 

Tkebans. 

didacrxovoi> rovg nuldag awcpQo- they teach their youths 

ovri]p, 'probity, 

it 7ioir { (Tu) uviov ; what shall I do to him ? 

Obs. 1. The immediate object of verbs which signify " t o 
do," or " to speak" is the action done or the word spoken ; the 
remote object is the person or thing to which it is done or 
spoken ; thus, 

noislv dyadic (scil egya) jiva, to do good to any one. 
Xeysuv xuxa (sc. em]) nva, to speak evil of any one. 

Instead of these adjectives with verbs of this signification, 
the adverbs el and xaxfbg are frequently joined ; thus, xaxtig 
noieZv viva, to do a person evil; ev leyeiv nva, to speak well of 
a person. Sometimes the?e words are in composition with 
the verb; as, evloyeZv, xwxoloyeZv, evBoyereZv, xaxovqyeZv — in 
which the accusative becomes the direct object, and is govern- 
ed by the compou nd transitive verb; as, xaxovqyeZv nva, to mal- 
treat a person. 

On the same principle several verbs, such as koidoqeofiai, Au- 
H<xlvoiiui, &c. which are usually followed by a dative, frequent- 
ly take an accusative. 

Obs. 2. When a verb admits of either of the words that fol- 
low it as its immediate object, they are both put in the accusa- 
tive; thus evdvBLv ava ihv ^TC&va, to clothe a person with a 
tunic, and, to put a tunic on a person, convey the same idea. 

Obs. 3. A transitive verb, besides the accusative of the imme- 
diate object, may be followed by the accusative of a noun of 
similar signification with itself; as, or Zeug cpilei Tcavjoli)v 
(pilonjiu, whom Jupiter loves with greed affection ; hlxrjoe rovg 
6ag6(kgovg ir\v lv MaqaQtovu udyjiv, he conquered the barbarians 
in the battle of Marathon. *• 

Obs. 4. When nocelo-Ouv, with a noun derived from a tran- 
sitive verb, is used as a circumlocution for the verb itself, it 
will of course be followed by two accusatives ; thus, noit-Zodut, 
rtyv (uddrjaip for fuavd&veiv ; TtoizlaOunr\v aqnayv { v for dond'Ce iv ; 
as, (jxev)i x<d uvdouTTodu u<mayr\v noirjodixevog, plundering the 
furniture and slaves ; sc. making plunder of &c. 

Obs. 5. Verba which signify to call or name, to make, to 
choose, besides the accusative of the person, may be followed 
by the accusative of an adjective or substantive being the pre- 



§ 154. CASES CONSTRUCTED WITH THE PASSIVE VOICE. 235 

dicate which the verb affirms of its immediate object. In this 
construction the verb elvai is frequently interposed ; thus, ooyiv. 
ti\v ovofi&toucFi top apdga, or top ckvdqa elpai, they call the man 
a philosopher. 

Obs. 6. The accusative neuter of pronouns and adjectives 
is often admitted in this construction, as well as with verbs 
which govern the genitive or dative, when the accusative of 
the substantive could not be used ; as, 

tovto fxs rfilKrjoe, he has injured me in this. 
t/ /oCouav avrcp; for w hat may I use it? 

Obs. 7. Instead of the second accusative, many verbs under 
this rule frequently take the genitive or dative; and, on the 
other hand, some verbs which are usually followed by an accu- 
sative with the genitive or dative, sometimes take the double 
accusative; thus, oc dij nolldc xai? dpOgoonoiao (for olvOqxhtiovq) 
idjoyzi, wJw verily inflicted many evils on men; anouxegelv Tiva 
xa /or^uaTu, and twp xojjucctgjv, to deprive a person of his goods. 

Obs. 8. The second accusative is often to be explained by 
a preposition after such verbs as Trgoxaleu, avayxa'Co), anoxgtpo- 
fiai, and verbs which signify to divide, as, dicugdo), <Ml;gj, &c; as, 
ngoxukeioOui xtva (tc) vjiovdug. to invite a person to a treaty ; 
Kvgog to UTgdievaa xuTtpeifts (elg) dwdexa [Jiegifo Cyrus divided 
the army into twelve parts. 

Note. With verbs of dividing, the whole which is divided is sometimes 
put in the genitive, and the word fxepog poTpa, &c, referred to the verb ; as, 
cuiScKa Yllporwv <pv\ai hi-qpf^ra-^ the tribes of the Persians were divided into 
twelve, for, the Persians were divided into twelve tribes ; jj.oipag <5i' £i\ev ?| ml 
imtitav kcu bvXirtov, literally, he divided the parts of cavalry and infantry into 
six; i. e. he divided the cavalry and infantry into six parts. Thus imitated 
in Latin, Cic. de Orat. Dtinde eorum generum quasi qutedam membra disper- 
tiat, for ea genera quasi in quozdam membra, &c 



§ 154. CONSTRUCTION OF CASES WITH THE 
PASSIVE VOICE. 

The passive voice is usually followed by a genitive of the 
doer, governed by the prepositions vtto, £x, 7rao&, ngbg, and con- 
sequently, the government of the case falls under the rules for 
prepositions; as, ur\ pixu tjtto tov xuxov, be not overcome of evil. 
Sometimes, though very seldom, it follows the preposition ill 
the dative ; as, imb uarq&Ttatg dioLxeXaOai^ to be governed by 
viceroys. But instead of this, and equivalent to it, the dative 



236 CASES CONSTRUCTED WITH THE PASSIVE VOICE. § 154. 

without a preposition is common ; hence the two following 

rules. 



Rule XXX. Passive verbs frequently govern 
the dative of the doer ; as, 

ircQ&TjsTo atijolg t& zr\g no- the affairs oj the city were con- 

Xeug, ducted by them. 

nenoLijTul fj.01, it has been done by me. 

Note. This construction most commonly takes place with the perfect 
passive, and the dative is equivalent to the genitive with vird, which is in 
common use ; as also -rrpdg, and sometimes trapa, U or c£, and d™. On the 
same principle, the verbal adjectives in tos and rios, having a passive signifi- 
cation, govern the dative of the doer. See § 147. Obs. 2. 

Rule XXXI. When a verb in the active voice 
governs two cases, in the passive it retains the 
latter case ; as, 

xocTTjyoQiouai v.\onr\g, I am accused of theft. 

tdoOrj t uoi naoa i^ovatoc, all power is given to me. 

lAovoi7tr { v (jhv -bub Aa/unqov being taught music by Lam- 

TTixtdevdelg, pmts. 

Obs. 1. Any passive verb may be followed by an accusative 
of similar signification with itself, on the principle laid down 
§ 153. Obs. 3. ; as, ivmeiat nhjyag nollag, he is struck with 
many blows. 

Obs. 2. When a verb in the active voice governs the accu- 
sative with the dative of a person, the passive frequently retains 
the former case, the latter being used as the subject of the 
verb. Thus, the same idea may be expressed in three differ- 
ent ways ; viz. 

1st. With the active voice; as, 6 dr^uog iniarfvas Avxovoycp 
ir^v ir\g Ttoleoi; bmuiXeuxv, the people committed the care 
of the cihj to Lycurgus. 

2d. By the passive voice with the latter case; as. Avxoio- 
yco etziti eidrj i c >7ro tov dr['tov rj rrjg noleoig iniiueXcia, the 
management oj the city was entrusted to Lycurgus* 

3d. By the passive voice with the former case, according 
to the Obs. ; as, Avxoviyyog t^v xrjg ndXewg Inip-CKeiav 



§ 155. CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 237 

■bnb tov dr^uov emuxevdr}, Lycurgus was entrusted with 
the management of the city by the people. 

The following are examples of this construction: ol imrs- 
roauuevoi ty\v q)vlaxi\v, those entrusted with the watch ; for olg ^ 
cpvkixxri ertixhoamo : zr^v d' lx %eigtbv dgnd^o/Liou, she is torn 
from my hands ; for f\ d' ix ^slq(dv dgndrsrac. 

Hence, also, such phrases as the following : Aidloneg nag. 
duMccg Evan[ievoi, the Ethiopians girded ivith panthers' skins ; 
Xelrtsi diliov eyysygafufievnv |uy#?]aara 3 he leaves a tablet in- 
scribed with writings ; because in the active voice it would 
have been epdrcreiv Aldionsai, nagdctlsag — eyygacpsiv ^vvOr^aaxa 
dslm. The accusative, in almost all such cases, may be ex- 
plained by supplying xaxh. This construction is imitated in 
Latin in such expressions as "inscripti nomina regumjlores" 
flowers inscribed with the names of kings. 

Note. This construction used in Latin only as a G racism, is common in 
English with such verbs as, to ask, teach, offer, promise, pay, tell, allow, deny, 
and the like ; as, He alloived me great liberty ; passively, great liberty ivas 
allowed me, or, -I was allowed great liberty. So, they were offered (to) me, 
or I was offered them. See English Grammar, § 49. Obs. Crombies' Ety- 
mology, p. 270. 

Obs. 3. On the same principle the part affected, (§ 144. 3.) 
is often put in the accusative after the passive voice; thus, in- 
stead of to Tgixvttd iiov bTtibelxuii, my wound is bound up, the ge- 
nitive is changed into the nominative to the verb, and the no- 
minative or part affected into the accusative; thus, (eyco) inc- 
diouai to Toavua, I am bound up as to my wound ; TJgou^Osvg 
exelgsTO to -rp^o, literally, Prometheus was torn out as to his 
liver ; i. e. his liver was torn out. See also § 157. Obs. 1. 

Obs. 4. When the passive is used in a middle sense, 
(§74. Obs. 5.), it become* deponent, and may be followed 
by an accusative in the same manner as the active voice ; as, 
nags oxavuatib voi rcavim BnXeov, having provided every thing, 
they sailed ; r\ovrivTui itogelap, they refused a conveyance. 



§ 155. CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 

Words and phrases are often thrown in between the parts 
of a sentence in an adverbial manner, to express some cir- 
cumstance connected with the idea of the simple sentence, 
and which do not depend for their case on any word in the 



238 THE REMOTE CAUSE OR ORIGIN. § 156. 

sentence to which they belong, but on a preposition or adverb, 
or other word understood; as, 

ZSieXavvei (naOuovg dvo elg 'Iooovg. xal ivTavOa efxeivev 
rifi^Qccg Tf>8Tg % he advanced two days' journey to 
Issus, and remained there three days. 

/uey&Xri onovdr^ n&vTa £7tQ(xiT6TO, every thing was done 

WITH GREAT HASTE. 

Under the general name of circumstances may be included 
words which indicate 1. The remote cause or origin, § 156. 
2. A particular qualification or direction of a general expres- 
sion, § 157. 3. Cause, manner, or instrument, § 158. 4. 
Place, § 159. 5. Time, § 160. 6. Measure, § 161. 7. 
Price, § 162. 8. Exclamation, § 163. 



§ 156. I. THE REMOTE CAUSE OR ORIGIN. 

Rule XXXII. The cause, source, or origin, 
and the part affected,, are put in the genitive; as, 

/luxx&olo; tt]; xu/?/g, happy from his fortune. 

cpilt-Z avioi' ttj; do£T7J£, he loves him on account of his virtue. 

Ivxov xouTeTv o&ru)*', to take a wolf by the ears. 

Obs. 1. Instead of the genitive the accusative is often used, 
governed by xutu, dux, &c. understood. 

06.9. 2. The circumstance of cause expressed by the geni- 
tive differs from that expressed by the dative ; the genitive ex- 
presses the remote or moving cause ; — the dative, the imme? 
diate or effective cause. 

Obs. 3. The material of which a thing is made is expressed 
in the genitive; as, o/edtav diydsyow, rafts made oj skins. 
See § 142. Obs. 4. 

Note. The genitive of the material is considered by some Grammarians 
as depending on Ik or and understood ; and an argument in favour of this 
i Ui >sis is drawn from the circumstance of U or and being sometimes ex- 
pressed. In all such passages the preposition seems to contain a more di- 
r ( t r< ference to the materia! than could be done by the common construc- 
tion, especially if a passive participle be likewise used ; as, eApa c£ dSAfjavros 
Trc-rroiriucvn, a seat made of adamant. Sometimes the dative is used for the 
genitive when the material of which any thin«; is made may be considered 
also as the means by which it is made ; as, ul }dv yap K&paecaL TCTevxarat, al 
$ i\e<pavTt 7 soine icere made of horn, some of ivory. 



§ 157. CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION. 239 

§ 157. II. CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION. 

A particular qualification of a general expression, made in 
English by the phrase " in respect o/," "with regard to," is 
expressed by the genitive and dative; or, more briefly, as 

follows: 

Rule XXXIII. Respect wherein is expressed 
in the genitive, sometimes in the dative. § 141.1. 
I. In the Genitive ; as, 

iyyvTara <xvtuj elfiL ysvovg, I am very near him in respect 

oj kin. 
duovg divdgatv, ' thick with trees. 

nXrjoloi allr[la)v 9 near (in respect of) each other. 

The genitive is thus used. 

1. After e/ji^ in the sense of to be (se habere), wim such ad- 
verbs as eii, ok, oVrco,, tick, ovrwg, xal&g, &c. ; as, noudelag 
ovrwg s/&t, he is so in respect of learning ; xultbg 6%eiv ^e- 
Orjg, to be pretty drunk; ^aco is used in the same way; 
as, Tillog tov 6lov el ^xa)j>, Tellus being well advanced 
in [respect of) life. 

2. After other verbs ; as, IneiyeLadai aoqog, to be in haste 
with respect to the battle. 

3. After adjectives; as, anaig ho(j&vo)v Txalduv, childless 
with respect to sons. 

4. With adverbs ; as, ttooou doerr); div^eiv^ to carry it far 
with respect to virtue. 

5. With substantives; as, ayyelia j^g Xlov, the relation con- 
cerning Chios. 

6. With entire propositions ; as, el nurgbg vi t asi tiv' $oav 
tov xaX(og ttouogflv doxelv, if he possesses any care of his 
father, in respect of his appearing to prosper. 

Obs. 1. Respect wherein is also put in the accusative govern- 
ed by xuxo\ understood ; viz. when the idea expressed by a 
verb or adjective is to be more accurately determined by an 
additional circumstance; as, tov duxxvlov ulyu, I am pained 
in my finger; /eoelwv ov diuag, ovds cpqevug, inferior neither 
in body nor mind; nodug tixvg 'A/Msvg, Jlchilles swift of 
foot. 



240 CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION. § 157, 

Note I. This is the construction so often imitated by the Latin poets; 
thus, Os kunierosque deo similis. 

Note 2. The accusative in this construction is in signification adverbial, 
and hence is frequently used as an adverb ; thus, apxtv, above all, originally ; 
™X°?j quickly; HXos, finally ; rhv -rrpcoTrfv, at first, &c. ; Kara being under- 
stood. So also such expressions as to ivavriov, on the contrar\) ; to Aey- 
6j.ievov, according to the proverb, &c. 

II. In the Dative. 

This case is used in a sense nearly similar, to 
express that with respect to which a thing is 
affirmed to be or take place. The extensive 
use of this construction in Greek may be illus- 
trated by the following examples: 

1. iti-iog i\v Oav&Tov jfj noXei, he was worthy of death, with 
respect to the state; i. e. he ivas guilty of a capital 
crime against the state. 

2. Jcal df} {tedlev /alenoTo /oloio T i] I s /u 6l / g>, and now they 
laid aside their grievous anger against (with respect to) 
Telemachus ; so eywye Xiooouat 'A/ill^i /Ltede/uev 
%6lov 9 I ivill pray him to lay aside his anger against 
Achilles. 

3. to uev e$(jydsv 6. m o [ji e v (£> o&/ua ovx otyav debitor r^v, the 
surface of the body was not very hot when one touch- 
ed it, [with respect to one touching it.) 

4. 'Ertldaiurog ion noltg ev det-iq i onXeo vt t t6v ^Ibviov %6X- 
nov, Epidamnus is a city on the right hand as you enter 
{with respect to one entering) the Ionian bay. 

5. dvtedexiAin Se ol t\&; x sift era, the twelfth day since H*fe 
lay (to him lying.) 

6. c Hoa xle'i pep df\ ooa adiol AlyvrtTiol cpaot, elvoti STea eg 
"Aauoiv, the Egyptians themselves tell how many years 
passed from Hercules (or, since the death of Hercules') 
to Jlmasis. 

7. Tip^y uorvtievov Me v e l&a, looking for the advantage (or 
pleasure) of Menelaus. 

8. oo/rjodtfieyoi Oeolot,, dancing in honour of the gods. 

Rem. Respect wherein is also sometimes expressed in the 
dative governed by ev understood ; as, 

nool xaxvSy swift of foot. 



§ 158. THE CAUSE, MANNER, AND INSTRUMENT. 241 

§ 158. III. THE CAUSE, MANNER, AND INSTRU- 
MENT. 

Rule XXXIV. The cause, manner, and in- 
strument are put in the dative ; as, 

q>66(p ejtoaTTov, I did it from fear. 

eyevsTo rude tc5 tqotkd, it happened in this manner, 

Ttardacreiv qhSd®, to strike with a s^ck. 

Obs. 1. The cause or motive may be considered as internal 
or external. The internal cause represents the act as proceed- 
ing from some particular state or disposition of the subject, or 
quality residing in it, and contains the answer to the question 
from lohat? or whence? and consequently may generally be 
rendered from : s-vvolq. y' avdco, I speak from good-will. 
The external cause represents the action as caused by some- 
thing without the agent, and may generally be rendered " for," 
" on account of," sometimes " according to," " in conse- 
quence of;" as, xqy\iiaoiv ertougouevog, elated with, or in conse- 
quence of riches ; AsovtIvcop xaroixlcrei, for, i. e.*in order to 
the re-establishment of the Leontines, the motive being derived 
from the end ; davuatw rrj anoxlslcfei [jlov tu>v ttvX&p, I am as- 
tonished at the shutting up of my gates. 

Obs. 2. In this construction the dative expresses the nearer 
or immediate cause, the more remote being usually expressed 
by the genitive, or by di& with the accusative, (§ 156. Obs. 1. 
2.) ; as, aoOeveia oojucctojv dtcx xr\v aiTodsuxv {jsce/dgovv, they (the 
Lacedemonians) gave way, from the weakness of their bodies 
induced by want of provisions. 

Obs. 3. The dative of the cause is probably governed by the 
preposition aucpl, neol, or enl understood. Sometimes they 
are expressed ; but whether with or without a preposition, the 
whole expression is adverbial in its nature; and hence, disre- 
garding its case, a neuter adjective or pronoun is sometimes 
put in the same construction with it, in the accusative ; as, 
ei' Tivog fdya i\v to v&(ia cpvosi, ?) JQocpr^ 3} a/LtcporeQa, if the 
body of a person was large naturally, or by nourishment, or 

BOTH. 

Obs. 4. The dative of the manner is governed by ev or cri>v 
understood, and maybe considered as adverbial. Hence, per- 
haps, verbs of punishing are followed by the punishment in the 

21 



242 CIRCUMSTANCES OF PLACE. § 159. 

dative; as, ^rjuiovv xwa dav&m, cpvyy, &c. to punish any om 
with death, with banishment, &c. 

Obs. 5. The dative of the instrument or mean may be a 
person ; as, zolg naqoxjovv &T6l%i£ev 9 he built the wall by means 
of those who were present. It is also put with substantives ; 
as, xivriosig tco aaaaxi, motions made with the body. 

Note. Hence the construction of xpnaOai with the dative ; that which we 
use bein^ considered as an instrument. On the same principle the dative is 
put after other v^rbs which imply the idea of using; rsKjAaipeadai roTg irpoaBev 
oifxoXoyrjixevoiSy to infer from what was granted; i. e. to use as proofs the things 
formerly granted. 

Obs. 6. Instead of the dative, the prepositions ev, anb, di&, 
<n)A>, with their cases are sometimes used. 



! 



§ 159. IV. CIRCUMSTANCES OF PLACE. 

The circumstances of place respect motion to, or from, or 
through a place, and motion or rest in a place; in all of which j 
the Greek writers generally use a proper name with a preposi- 1 
tion; thus, e? \4dr\vwv, from Athens; elg Bgixawiav, to Bri- 1 
tain ; ev II via, in Pylos ; did. xr^g nolecDg, through the city. l 
But, 

Rule XXXV. The place ivhere, without a 
preposition, is expressed in the genitive or da- 
tive; as, 

Magadan, at Marathon ; "Agyeog, at Argos. 

Obs. l.*Tn this construction the genitive may be governed 
by inl or keqI ; and the dative by iv understood. The prepo- 
sition is also often understood before common nouns denoting 
place ; as, eo'/ecrdov xhal?]r % they two came to the tent. 

Obs. 2. The genitive after elg, to a place, or sv, in a place, 
is governed by a substantive understood ; as, slg adov, (sc. 
dnuov), to Hades ; tv "Aqyeog (sc. ndlei), at Argos. § 142. 
Obs. 1. 

Obs. 3. The terminations ~0i and -ov, added to a noun, de- 
note at a place; as, aygddc, in the country ; Qr^rjai, at Thebes; 
-de and -ere to a place; as, 'AOf\vaode, to Athens ; xholrjvde, 
to the tent ; -Oev and -de, from a place; as, vXial^Qsv tivellsro 
%YX°S> he took a spear from the tent. § 120. 6. 



,) 160, 161. CIRCUMSTANCES OF MEASURE. 243 

§ 160. V. CIRCUMSTANCES OF TIME. 

Rule XXXVI. Time token is put in the da- 
tive ; time how long, in the accusative ; as, 

when; 'hu&Qy T Q^ T Jl, on the third day, 

how long ; TQsTg olovg {ir\yag nags' peivev, he remained three 

whole months, 

m 

' l f Obs. 1. When the reference is to a fixed time at which a 

^ling took place, the dative is used as in the rule; but if the 

" dea of duration is implied, it is put in the accusative ; as, t&£ 

uigag xal rag vvXTocg, by day and by night; sometimes in the 

'^enitive ; as, exdxojos Sirj l Hoaxlrjeh] tuv nooTeoav hewv, Her- 

ules distressed us in former years, 

Obs. 2. Time how long, may respect the time during which 
ince which, or after ivhich some event took place. The first 
3 put in the accusative as above ; the second is more com- 
aonly expressed in the genitive; as, nollov avrovg ov% h&gaxa 
{ ;o6pov, I have not seen them for a longtime; the third, gene- 
rally in the dative ; as, ov nollalg r^uigavg vozegov, not many 
.ays after. But sometimes in the genitive, when protracted 
ud indefinite; a?, exeZoe ovx ticpixveTTat, eifhv {livqlwv, he comes 
ot thither in ten thousand years. In this, however, there is 
ome variety. , 

[ o 

a- § 161. VI. CIRCUMSTANCES OF MEASURE. 

The circumstances of measure respect magnitude, distance, 

rd the measure of excess, as follows : 
Rule XXXVII. The measure of magnitude 
,0 s put in the genitive; as, 

avdgia; duudexa rtrjzewv, a statue of twelve cubits, 

a 

- Rule XXXVIII. The measure of distance is 
Jut in the accusative, sometimes in the dative ; 

■s, 



*E<psaog (xniyBi toiwv r^uiowv bdbv Ephesus is distant three 

or oJJj, days' journey. 

, itevTSxaldexa Tir^/eig tiytidq t6 the water rose fifteen 
vd(Dg, cubits. 



244 CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. §> 162, 163, 164 

Obs. When measure of magnitude or distance is found ii 
the nominative after a substantive verb, or in the accusative 
after an infinitive, the construction is according to § 139. Ill 



Rule XXXIX. The measure of excess is pui 
in the dative after the comparative degree ; as ; 

iwiaviw 7TQ8(j6vT6Qog y older by a year. 

Obs. Hence the expressions nolly, dfayoj, /%*#£?, See. witl 
the comparative. It is, however, sometimes put in the accusa 
tive; as, nokv fie I'Qjiv^ much greater ; nollov huelvwv , much better 



§ 162. VII. CIRCUMSTANCE OF PRICE. 

Rule XL. The price of a thing is put in the 
genitive ; as, 

dog tovio dQax[ir\g, give this for a drachma. 

Obs. The price is put sometimes in the dative, with the pre- 
position inl expressed or understood ; as, eni fiioOQ [jey&X(? 
for a great reward. Sometimes in the accusative ; as, mnQ&oxe 
o xuxbg Tvkvxu TTgbg doyvoiov, the wicked sell all things for silver 



§ 163. VIII. EXCLAMATION. 

Rule XLT. Exclamations of praise, indigna- 
tion, compassion, &c. are put in the genitive 
sometimes in the accusative; as 7 

Trjg uvaidelag, O the impudence ! 
(pev tov ardodg, Alas ! the man. 
5) itib dellaiov. O wretched me I 

Obs. Sometimes with the genitive there is an addition o 
the nominative ; as, ol'/uot, j(bv i/uup eyw xax&v, ah! my miseries 
*/<», oval, oi\ and oi, govern the Dative ; as, lw fioi, woe is me. 



§ 164. CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. ' 



Adverbs are joined to adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs 
to express some circumstance, quality, or manner of their sig 
nification. 



^ 



§ 165. ADVERBS AS PREPOSITIONS. 245 

Many adverbs in Greek have the force of prepositions in 
Latin and English. These are often joined with substantives, 
as will appear in the following rules. They are also some 
times used as substantives or adjectives ; as, and tots, from 
that time ; 6 £?co avOgaiiog, the outward man. § 130. Obs. 1. 2d, 

Rule XLII. Derivative adverbs commonly 
govern the ease of their primitives; as, 

dl/co, rju&p, in a manner worthy of us. 

fiakiGTa ti&vtvjv, most of all. 

opoitog Tolg cilloig, in a manner similar to the rest, 

n&gex *rja, ivithout the ship. 



§ 165. ADVERBS AS PREPOSITIONS. 

Adverbs having the force of prepositions govern the same 
case with the prepositions which, in meaning, they resemble ; 

, thus, 6/liov, aua, together, having the force of otiv, govern the 
dative ; svsxa, on account of resembling dt,a, governs the gc- 

, nitive. This general principle authorizes the two following 
rules : 

Rule XLIII. Some adverbs of time, place, 
And quantity, likewise of number, order, and ex- 
ception, govern the genitive ; as, 

ot/ot TTJg (jtjusqov r^uigag, to this day. 
ov yr\g slav ; where am I ? 

Obs. 1. To these may be added adverbs of cause, compari- 
son, distinction, concealment, separation, or exclamation ; and 
also nouns used adverbially, as, zuqiv, dtxrjv, Iv&mov, &c. ; as, 
Sixr/v Ttoiufi&v, like rivers. 

The adverbs which come under this rule are the following : 

I'xvev, dreg, dl/a, %&gig, without ; (xvtixqv, avTixgvg, ccTtavTtxgv, 
igainst, opposite ; ol-/ov, fiz/oi, to, even to ; spexcl, svexsv, on 
iccount of ; ty/vg, nlrjalov, ay/v, uaoov, near; exwg, elgco, ex- 
oodev, ivithout; evTog, ea(o, el'aco, evtouQev, within; rck-^v^ nag- 
xiog, except, but; uetu^u, among; ott/oto, omodev, behind; 
jgoodev, before; niguv, inixsivu, beyond, &c. 

Exc. 1. ay/i, and ahg sometimes govern the dative. 
Exc. 2. nlr^v, except, has sometimes the nominative after it; 

21* 



246 ADVERBS AS PREPOSITIONS. § 165 

as, n\J\v ol twv rcaldav d id &(J x a"k o i, EXCEPT THE TEACHER 
of the boys. 

Note. Adverbs of the final cause are frequently omitted ; as, sypaxp 
TovSe, I wrote /or tfiis reason, sup. evcKa. 

Obs. 2. Adverbs of time, place, &c, are frequently change 
by the poets into adjectives; as, o2de nav rui&qio i fiolnrj Oeb 
IhxaxovTO, they propitiated the god with song the whole day 
§ 131. Obs. 6. 

Certain adverbs are joined sometimes with one case an 
sometimes with another ; as follows : 

1st. auuiytx, afiulydijv, iyyvg, syyvdsv, n&QFyyvg, uvveyyv; 
££?}£, eqpefrj?, oxedov, o/sdoOev, aviooxedoy, are put witl 
the genitive or da.tive. 

2d. ciy/^ &Y%60o, ixTTodow, nhjalov, enlnooodev, oftener witl 
the genitive. 

3d. (jcvdirahv, e^naliv^ oftener with the dative. 

4th. el'aoj, /ueocpa, Tt&gBx or 7raoe£ 5 n^giS, with the GENITIVI 

Or ACCUSATIVE. 

5th. devoo. with the dative or accusative. 

6th. a/ot, a/ot£, /ue/Qi, fte/gig, with the genitive, dative 
or accusative. 



1 



Rule XLIV. Adverbs of accompanying gov- 
ern the dative ; as, 

aua rrj ^uega, at day-break. 



Rule XLV. Adverbs of swearing govern the 
accusative ; as, 

i'tj 4la, by Jupiter ; fide rods Gximoov^ by this sceptre. 

Obs. 3. In sentences of this kind, /*<£ commonly denies, un- 
less joined with vul ; and vf\ affirms, unless joined with a ne- 
gative. 

Obs. 4. Adverbs of shewing are put with the nominative ; 
as, Id oi> 6 avOooinoz, behold the man; Yds ^ p^iyo /uov xal ol 
&del(pot {liou, behold my mother and my brethren. 






§ 166. OF NEGATIVES. 247 

§ 166. OF NEGATIVES. 

The Greek language has two simple negatives, ofi and ^rj, 
from which all the compound negative terms me formed, and 
to which, in their use and manner of construction, they are 
similar. Between these two negatives and their respective 
compounds there is a total difference of use, the foundation of 
which is as follows : 

1. ov is the direct and independent negative, which express- 
es a positive denial without reference to any thing else ; as, 
Jfux edelo), I icill not; ovx uyadov ion,, it is not good ; ovdelg 
, 7i«o^, no one teas present. A direct negation of this kind 
JSan never be expressed by fir] or its compounds. 

2. ^tJ, on the other hand, is uniformly a dependent nega- 
;ive. It is therefore used in all propositions in which the 
negative is represented, not as a fact, but as something depend- 
ent on the conception, as a condition, supposition, &c. ; and 
lence it is used in the manner following: 

1st. After the conditional conjunctions el, ear, r\v, otm, 
STieid&p, ewg, av, and those which intimate an end, de- 
sign, motive ; asr, Iva, <hg, oncog, (haze ; as, si [xr\ bqQibg 
liyw, if I do not speak correctly; dcnedriiirjoe Iva ^ 
ccvayxaodrj, v*. t. I., he (Solon) went away that he might 
not be compelled, &c. 

2d. Without any such particle/*?] is always put with the im- 
perative mood in all the tenses, with the subjunc- 
tive in the aorists used imperatively, and with the op- 
tative when it expresses a wish ; as, ^r\ /ue fiuXke, or ^rj 
fie ^tiliqg, do not strike me; [ir\ ykvouo, may it not be. 

3d. Mr[ is used after relatives, and with participles when 
they express a condition or supposition ; as, rig ds 
dovrai duvarat £t£og) u [if} uvrog s/ei ; who can give a 
thing to another, if he has it not himself ? a ovx airog 
z%ei would mean, that which he has not himself. So 
also, 6 (jLr\ nioTBviSiv, if a person does not believe. But, 
6 o«5 Ttioievixiv, is, one lino does not believe. 

4th. Mrj is used with infinitives whether they be dependent 
upon another verb or used with the article as a verbal 
noun, § 173. I. ; as, hvhyv.ri tovto ju^i novelv, it is ne- 
cessary not to do this ; rd {ir\ noielv, the not doing. 

5th. With verbs which signify to fear, to warn, and the like, 
wi\ is used, like ne in Latin, where a positive expres- 



I 

248 DOUBLE NEGATIVES. § 16 

sion is used in English ; as, didoixa fir) tv jivrjic 
vereor ne quid accidst, / am afraid that something ira 
happen. Sometimes the preceding verb is unde 
stood ; as, (ir\ tovto iiXlwg %/ij, (scil. dsdoixa), 1 fear l 
this be otherwise. 

So also after verbs which signify to forbid, deny, pr 
vent, refrain, disbelieve, to be cautious, and the like, 
is frequently put with the infinitive where the negath 
is not used in English; as, dtnavdco toviov fir\ naoisva 
1 forbid this man to enter. 
6th. Mj\ is sometimes merely an interrogative particle lit 
num in Latin, giving, however, greater emphasis to tr 
question ; as, tut) hvelelv /us ov OsXeig ; wilt thou hill me 
3. A negative placed between the article and its noun, cot 
verts it into a sort of compound negative term; as, r) ov di&fa 
ovg TAbv yeyvoibv, the not destroying of the bridges ; ^ ^ spins 
qla, the inexperience. 

Rem. In the same manner it is used with certain verbs 
thus, ov cprj/M, I deny, contradict; otin s&co, I fwbid; ov 1 / time 
Xvso^at,, I refuse ; thus, otix scpauav tovto slvai does not sign: 
fy they did not say that this was, but, they denied that tin 
w as, or, they said this was not. 



§ 167. DOUBLE NEGATIVES. 

When to a proposition already negative, and also to verbi 
which signify to deny, to contradict, to hinder or oppose, ant 
the like, other qualifications of a general nature are to be at 
tached; such as ever, any body, any where, &c. ; it is usual t< 
do this by compounds of the same negative. Hence the foil 
lowing rules : 

Rule XLVI. Two or more negatives, joinec 
to the same verb, strengthen the negation ; as, 

ovx snolrjoe tovto ovdafiov ovdslg y no one any where did this. 

Obs. 1. To the negation of the whole is joined in the same 
sentence the negation of the parts ; as, oi5 dvvaiav ofae Xsysit 
ovis noLSiv, he can neither speak nor act. 

Note. Consequently, in translating such propositions into English, only 
one negative can be used. 



167. DOUBLE NEGATIVES. 249 

Rule XLVII. But two or more negatives 
oined to different verbs, destroy the negation, 
md are equivalent to an affirmative; as, 

s oti dvvjcpeOa [i^ lalelv, we cannot but speak, 
oddelg ooTug oi3 yelav&Tat,, there is nobody who will not laugh, 

i. e. " every body willlaugh ;" icr- 
tI being understood with oddelg. 
Obs. 2. Indeed, so common is the ellipsis of io-rl in this ex- 
pression, that it is lost sight of, and the antecedent ovdelg, 
-hich should be its nominative, is often attracted into the case 
f the relative which follows ; as, oddevl om odx agioxev, there 
i nobody whom it does not please, for oddelg otw, &c. ; oddeva 
nwa od xacdxlavcrsv, he caused every one to weep, for .oddelg 
jtiv Qvjiva, &c. " there is no one whom he did not cause 
> weep" 

Obs. 3. It is also proper to observe the use of the negative 
.1 such sentences as the following : xal od rccvra [uev yg&qpet, 6 
'CKiTinog Tolg d' egyoug od novel, Philip does not write these 
lings and not perform them; i.e. teTinknot that Philip writes 
'ese things and does not execute them; where the first od 
)es not affect the verb yg&cpei, but the two propositions to- 
ether. It denies an assertion which might be thus expressed ; 
Acpet uhv od noiel di, he writes but does not execute. So also 
' dr> tqqv juev /eigoie/vwv earl tl negag T^g egyaolag rov d' ccvdg(D- 
ivov 6iov odx eari, " it cannot be that there is some object in 
e labours of the artist, bid none in the life of man." 

Nutc. In phrases of this kind, the two propositions as here, are usually 
stinguished by fxlv and 6e ; and the second is negative. 

&bs. 4. In some phrases ov and /uij are united ; as, ov* /u^ 
id uri od. Od /uri is a stronger and more emphatic negation 
an ov, and is used in the same way, § 166. 1. Mi] ov, in 
meral, is only a stronger expression of [itf, and is used in the 
me manner, subject, however, to the following modifications : 
1st. In dependent propositions, when the verb of the prin- 
cipal proposition is either accompanied by a negation, 
or contains a negative idea in itself, /uij ov destroy each 
other, and may generally be rendered " that ; n as, odx 
agvovuai fir^ od ybveodui, I do not deny that it has taken 
place; neiOouav yog ov touovtov oddev (oore [ir\ ov* xatibg 
OaveXv, for I am persuaded that there will nothing hap- 
pen to me so bad but that I shall die nobly. 



250 PREPOSITIONS. § 16£ ! 

2d. Mr) oi5 after verbs signifying to fear, to warn, &c. a 

above, § 166. 2. 5th. render the sentence negativ 

which with /ur\ alone would be positive ; as, didoixu p 

ov ji yivjjTa*, I am ajrajd lest something may not hap 

pen ; yoGovuai /ur) ov jcalbv 77, vereor ne non honestui: 

sit, Ijear that this may not be proper. 

3d. In independent propositions with the subjunctive mood 

/mtj joined with ov makes the negative expression less posi 

tive; as, ullo\ ^ otix r] didaxTov v] tigerr], but virtue may per! 

haps be a thing not to be taught. This sentence may b! 

explained by supplying an omitted verb, as oga, or the like 

and be rendered literally. But see whether virtue may no 

be &c. 



§ 168. PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions are used to express the relation in which out 
thing stands to another. For the primary and various derivet 
meanings of prepositions indifferent constructions, see § 124 j 
The influence they exert over the words with which they are 1 
joined, as far as it respects their case, is regulated by the foM 
lowing rules : 

Rule XLVIII. *Avri 9 aTto, ex or l£, and npa 

govern the genitive only; as, 

dqjdixX/Lidg o\vil dcpduX/uov, an eye for an eye. 



Rule XLIX. 'Ev and avv govern the dative. 



Rule L. Elg (or eg) and dvd govern the accu-i 
sative. 

Obs. I. J vol, among the poets, also governs the dative. 



Rule LI. Aid, %arcd ) [istd, vnep, govern the ge- 
nitive or accusative. 

Obs. 2. MfTu. among the poets, also governs the dative 
of a plural noun, or a noun of multitude ; as, fisia igntiioiot 
&VOLO-OEV. 



§ 169. PREPOSITION IN COMPOSITION. 251 

Rule LII. 3 Af.i<pl r Ttepi, em, 7tocpd, Ttpog, and vnb, 
govern the genitive, dative, or accusative. 

[l Note. For the meaning of the prepositions as modified by the case with 
■which they are joined, see § 124. 

Obs. 3. Prepositions are often used as adverbs, their case 
Ebeing understood. This is the case especially with ev in the 
clonic, and nqbg in the Attic. Hence, in the Ionic writers they 
.care often put twice, once abverbially without a case, and again 
with a case or in composition with a verb ; as, ev de xal ev 
Meuyi, in Memphis also. 

Obs. 4. Prepositions are sometimes separated from their 

,:ase; as, ev youo os rrj vvxtI iuvtt^ avaloouai. In Attic this 

I akes place according to rule, with the conjunctions /uev, ££, y&Q, 

)bv ; as, ev [ihv yao, efoTp"^ ; — eg /uev ovv i&g * Adr^vag ; and with 

too; with the genitive when it signifies per. 

Obs. 5. Prepositions are often put after their case, particu- 
arly by the Ionic and Doric writers and the Attic poets ; as, 
ewv ano xal xlioiawv. In the Attic prose writers it takes place 
inly in neol with the genitive. When so placed the accent is 
lways thrown back to the first syllable ; thus, ano negi, &c. 

Obs. 6. When a preposition should stand twice with two 
lifTerent nouns, it is often put only once by the poets, and that 
oo with the second noun ; as, 7) albg t\ enl yr\g, Horn, by sea 
rr land. 

Obs. 7. A preposition is frequently understood. 



§ 169. PREPOSITION IN COMPOSITION. 

Rule LIII. A preposition in composition some- 
imes governs the same case as when it stands 
»y itself; as, 

l^lds xr\g olxtag, he ivent out from the house. 

Obs. 1. This is done when the preposition can be separated 
om the verb and joined with the substantive, without altering 
ie sense. 

Obs. 2. In Homer, Herodotus, and other old writers, the 
reposition is frequently found separated by one or more words 
om that with which it may be considered in composition ; 



252 OP THE INDICATIVE MOOD. § 170. 

as, ^uXv and loiybv d^ivvav, (II. 1. 67.) for ^ulv drto/uvvcxi loiyov ; 
and /U8V gswvtov tiXeoag, ^Herod. 3. 36.) for oeujvibp /hep an&le- 
aag. Hence when the verb is to be repeated several times, af-, 
ter the first time the preposition only is often used; as, ano-\ 
Islnohv, anode narsooc. Grammarians, however, consider! 
the preposition in such cases as used adverbially, and not 
properly in composition. Instances of the p/oper tmesis are 
very rare, especially in the Attic prose writers. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 



§ 170. OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 

The indicative mood is used in Greek when any thing is to 
be represented as actually existing or happening, and as a 
thing independent of the thought and ideas of the speaker. 
Hence it is often used where, in Latin, the subjunctive would 
be used ; as, . 

1. After negative propositions with the relative. 

2. In indirect interrogations. 

3. In quoting the language of another after or*, <bg, &c. 

4. In conditional propositions after el, implying a supposi- 
tion in the statement, but a certainty in the fact; i. e. 
when the thing supposed is neither contingent nor fu- 
ture, but present and certain ; as, el slot flu/uol, elal xul 
Oeol, if there are altars, there are also gods. Or, when 
the condition and consequence are both past actions; 
as, ovx &v nooileyev, el /u^ inloxevoev alrjOevosiv, he icoiild 
not have foretold it, unless he had believed it would prove 
true This is agreeable to the ordinary construction in 
Latin. 

Obs. 1. The indicative is put with &v in the conclusion, I 
when it is put with el in the condition, when it refers to the 
present time; as, el xv el'/sv sdldov (xv, "if he had any thing 
he ivould give it." Here, however, a denial of the condition 
is always understood : thus, "but he has not." 



§ 171, 172. SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. 253 

Obs. 2. The indicative is sometimes used in supposition? 
where, in other languages, the subjunctive would be put; as, 
Tedvjjxa T7} afjj duyargl, xal ^ dncbXecfe, suppose that I /la^BEEN 
slain by thy daughter, and that she had made an end of me. 



§ 171. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

The imperative in Greek is used as in other languages, in 
addresses, entreaties, commands, &c. The pronouns (being 
the nominative) are omitted, except where emphasis or distinc- 
tion is required. In the use of this mood the following pecu- 
liarities of construction may be observed ; viz. 

1. The second person sometimes stands for the third ; as, 

dXka cpvlaTTS no.; tiq, but let each one watch. 
nelug rig Xdi, let some neighbour go. 

2. As in English, the plural is sometimes used for the sin- 
gular ; as, ttoogsIOsts, u nal naxol, come, O my child, to thy fa- 
ther. 

H. In prohibitions with p% the present imperative is most 
commonly used. If the aorist is used, /t«j must be put with 
the subjunctive. 

4. The imperative after olod 1 6ti, olod' o, olod'' c&£, seems to 
be used elliptically, and to have arisen from a transposition of 
the imperative; as, olad' <hg nolr\oov ; knoivest thou in what 
way thou must act ? (i. e. act, knoivest thou in what way ?) 
oloO 1 ol)v o doavov ; know est thou what to do? (i. e. do, knotti- 
est thou what ?). 

5. Sometimes the imperative is used for the future ; as, xi 
ol)v ; xetcrOtd vouog ; what then? shall a law exist? i. e. What 
then? do you say, let a law exist? On the other hand, the 
future is still more frequently used for the imperative; as, yv<h* 
OKau 'ATQeLdrjv Jyau&uvova, (for yv&Oi), recollect Agamemnon, 
Jltreus' son. Especially is this the case with a negative in* 
terrogatively ; as, ovaow fj? etiosig ; ivill you not leave mi 
alone ? i. e. leave me alone. 



§ 172. SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. 

The subjunctive and optative moods represent an action, 
not as actually existing, but rather as dependent upon, and 

22 



254 SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. § 172 

connected with, the ideas and feelings of the speaker. The 
subjunctive represents this dependence as present ; the opta- 
tive represents it as past, (§ 75. 2.) Hence the following 
general rule : 

1. The subjunctive and optative in dependent propositions. 

Rule LIV. In dependent clauses, the subjunc- 
tive mood is used in connexion with the primary 
tenses; the optative with the secondary; (§ 77. 
Obs. 3.) as, 

7i6iQ8t(jiv 2va i'dw, I am present that I may see. 
tt(xqt\v Ivol i'doifii, I was present that I might see. 

On this general principle the whole construction of these 
moods depends, as may be illustrated by the following obser- 
vations : 

Obs. 1. These moods are used after conjunctions whose 
use is to introduce a subordinate or dependent clause, in which 
actual existence is not definitely expressed; as, ?»«, ocpoa, onwg, 
(be; thus, iOileig ocpo' avzog %%$$ yigag ; do you wish that you 
yourself may have a reward? f<r it u' IgtO^e ouwegog &g y.e vh]ui^ 
provoke me not that you may return the safer. This sentence, 
which contains the direct address (oratio directa) of Agamem- 
non to Chryses, has the subjunctive after wc, in connexion with 
\he present tQtOCf. When this is afterwards related as &past 
event, in the style of the indirect address (oratio obliqua), the 
subjunctive is changed into the optative; thus, undvav ixilevs 
nut uri ZoeGiZeiv c lvu awe ol'xade H6ol > he commanded him to 
depart and not provoke him that he might return safe. 

In like manner when a person relates what was said by ano- 
ther, without quoting his language, as the reference must be 
to what is past, the optative is used with on or we prefixed ; 
as, "Els$4 /not,, on 7) ddbg a iooi tig ity noliv, &c. ; he told me 
that the road led into the city, &,c. 

When <>ti has been already expressed, it is often omitted 
before succeeding clauses in the same construction. 

Obs. 2. When a past event is related in the present time, 
the verb in the dependent clause may still be in the optative ; 
and in like manner, after the historical tenses, the subjunctive 
is used when the event, though past, yet continues in its effects 
and operation, to and through the present time. Thus, in the 
address of Minerva to Diomede, " I removed the mist from 



§ 172 SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS 255 

your eyes that you may distinguish (ocpga yivcboxrig) a deitv 
from a man in the field of battle." Here, however, there 
may be a change of reference, i. e. the subjunctive yivihour^ 
may refer, not to the time of the removal, but to the time of 
the address, as if she had said, "I removed the mist from your 
eyes that you may from this time forward distinguish," &c. 
Such changes of reference are not uncommon in all lan- 
guages. 

Obs. 3. It was noticed, § 75. Obs. 3. that the future indic- 
ative is used in a subjunctive sense. Accordingly it is often 
found in a dependent clause, especially after onwg, in the same 
construction as the subjunctive; as, "Cyrus deliberates (onug 
fxr^Tioxs stl eoicu) that he may no longer be subject to his broth- 
er, but, if possible (ficcadevoec), may reign in his stead. 
Snemeov — onmg arrcpalearaTa a.rciix)^ev, (subj.) %al onwg t& ini. 
Trfieux e$o{usv, (fut.) We ought to consider how we may get 
away most safely, and obtain the necessary supplies. 

Obs. 4. After adverbs of time, when the precise point of 
time is not determined Put left indefinite, the subjunctive and 
optative are used These are Inty, ansiddv, orav, onozav, refer- 
ring indefinitely to the present, and so followed by the subjunc- 
tive, inel, eneidri, ots,6ti6ts, refer indefinitely to the past, and 
are followed by the optative; as, " JMenelaus entertained him 
when (from time to time) he came from Crete." onoze Kq^ttjOsv 
laono. Here onoze Kq^ttjOsv Ixezo would mean, when he actu- 
ally came from Crete. The primary part of the sentence, then, 
may be considered as understood, as, when it happened, that he 
came from Crete. 

Obs. 5. When the relatives og and oang refer to definite 
persons or things, and to what actually took place, they are 
followed by the indicative mood. But if the person or thing 
to which they refer be indefinite, and the whole proposition af- 
firms of past time, then the verb is in the optative without &v ; 
as, ovuvu. uhv CacTilriu v.c/elr], whatever monarch he found; 
itUvxag otg) evTv/oiEv — xxelvovzsg, slaying all whomsoever they 
might meet. On the other hand, if the proposition affirms 
something of present or future time, the verb is in the sub- 
junctive with a^ ; as, lv i} d y av zthv cpvX&p nlelowt, (bat, &c. 
in whichsoever of the tribes there may be the greatest number, 
&c. ; tneods onoi av jig r\yrrrai, follow where (it is possible 
that) any one may lead the way. In such sentences the pri- 
mary part may be understood, such as "it is possible that," 
"it happened that," &c. 



256 SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. § 172. 

2, The Subjunctive and Optative in Independent Propositions. 

Obs. 6. Both the subjunctive and optative are used without 
being preceded by another verb, and so apparently in inde- 
pendent clauses. In all such instances, however, there is an 
ellipsis of the verb on which they depend. 

I. The subjunctive is thus used, 

1st. To command in the first person ; as, I'wfiev, let us go, 

i. e. it is necessary that we go ; and so of others. 
2d. In forbidding, with /nt] or its compounds in the aorist, 

not in the present; as, ^-rj o^oanqg, swear not. 
3d. In deliberating with one's self; as, not to&tkdjluxi, 

whither shall 1 turn ; efawpev t) oiy&iiev, shall we speak 

or be silent. 

II. The optative is thus used, 

1st. To express a wish or prayer ; as, tovto ^ yevono, 
O that this might not be. »In this case eXOe, el, &g 9 
nwg cip, are often used with the optative. 

Rem. A wish relating to what is past, or that cannot be 
realized, is expressed by the indicative of the histori- 
cal tenses, with tide, effi el ya(j } wc, prefixed; as, tffls 
dwinbv ^v y would that it were possible. — Or, by the 
2 aor. ind. of dyelloj (ticpelop, -eg, -e, §78. 8.) with the 
infinitive; as, {ir^noz' ticpekov noinv, would that 1 had 
never done it I el yag tbcptle duvtTv y Q that he had dit d! 

2d. In connexion with <xv to express doubt, conjecture, bart 
possibility ; and in volitions, to express, not a fixed 
resolution, but only an inclination to a thing ; as nvsg 
uv eiev vojuelg, they were perhaps (or, it is probable that 
they were) shepherds ; r)dewg av deaaalixriv, I woidd 
gladly see them. 

3d. To express a definite assertion with politeness or mo- 
desty ; as, ov% r\xet, ovd 1 &v ijfot devgo, he has not come, 
and will not come back ; i. e. I rather think it was 
'his purpose that he woidd not come back. 

4th. Sometimes it is used for the imperative to convey a 
command or request in milder terms; as, xtyoig &v 
el'ou, you may go in, i. e. go in. 

5th. -It is sometimes used for the indicative to give an air 
of indeterminateness to the circumstances of an action 
which is determinate in itself; as, tc5*> ve(bv dg xaxudi- 



§ 172. CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. 257 

usiav^ the ships which they may (or might) have sunk ; 
i. e. which they have sunk. 
6th. It is also used in a potential sense, to denote power or 
volition ; as, ovx av ds [istveiag avx6v ; could you not 
withstand him ? eOel^usisv civ; ivould he be willing ? 

III. The Subjunctive and Optative in Conditional Propositions. 

Obs. 7. The use of the indicative in conditional propositions 
has been noticed § 170. 4. The subjunctive and optative are 
also used in conditional propositions, as follows : 

1st. Uncertainty in the condition, with an actual result, is 
expressed by lav with the subjunctive ; as, edv tv %%w- 
fiev dcocro t u8v, if we have any thing we will give it. The 
result in this case will be in the indicative future or the 
imperative. 
2d. A mere hypothetical supposition with a determinate re- 
sult, puts the condition in the optative with si, and the 
result in the indicative ; as, " if these things should 
seem {doxoLrj) to be very aggravated crimes, none of 
them are chargeable on me." On the contrary, an ac- 
tual case supposed in the condition with a hypothet- 
ical result, would require the first in the indicative with 
si, and the last in the optative. 
3d. When the case is altogether hypothetical, the condition 
is expressed by the optative with si, and the result by 
the optative with civ ; as, el' ng xavxa nqaTToi, /ueyafi av 
wcpskricreie, if any one should do this he would great- 
ly assist me. 

Sometimes the subjunctive with eav or &v, instead of 
the optative, is put in the condition. 
Obs. 8. All conditional propositions in Greek may be turn- 
ed into the infinitive or participle with civ; as, oXovxai ava/ucx- 
%eo0ai civ, ovuua/ovg ngoalaOovTeg, " they think they might 
retrieve their fortune in war by obtaining allies." 



« 
CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. 

The infinitive mood expresses the meaning of the verb in a 
general and unlimited manner, without the distinctions of num- 
ber or person. § 75. 4. In construction it may be considered 
under the four following divisions: viz. as a verbal noun; as 

22* 



258 THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT A SUBJECT. § 173, 174* 

following a verb or adjective without a subject ; as having a 
subject before it; or, as used absolutely after certain particles. 



§ 173. I. THE INFINITIVE AS A VERBAL NOUN. 

Rule LV. The infinitive mood, with the article 
before it, is used as a substantive in all the cases; 
as, 

ex tov bqav yty vexai to Iqav^ love is produced from sight, 

Obs. 1. When the infinitive with or without a clause is used 
as the nominative to a verb, or the accusative governed by it, 
it is frequently without the article ; very rarely so after a pre- 
position ; as, nacnv -fifxlv xaxdaveZv bopelXeiai, dying is due to 
all of us. 

Obs. 2. Not only the simple infinitive, but the infinitive 
with the whole clause to which it belongs, may often be regard- 
ed as a substantive, and stand in almost every variety of con- 
struction in which a substantive can be placed ; as, Nom, to 
Tovg apQo&novg duagrdveiv ovdsv Oavfxaoxov (sari), that men 
should err is nothing ivonderfid ; Gen. tineg tov /nyd^pa &no- 
dvrioxeiv, that no one might perish; Dat. Iva amcntiai rco kfih 
TeTiur\odai find dou/uovcDv, that they may disbelieve my having 
been honoured by the gods; Ace. sxqivoc to {ir\ n&fov eldeip, I 
determined not to come again. 

Obs. 3. With the article alone the infinitive is generally 
equivalent to the Latin Gerund; as, svsxa tov Mysiv, causa di- 
cendi ; iv tw kiyeiv, dicendo; nobs to l&yeiv, ad dicendum. 

Obs. 4. Without the article it has often the force of the 
Latin Supine; as, r\Ws 'Crjirioui, venit quozsitum f[dv &xbvsiv. 
Suave audilu; al'o/ioiog b^dr^vou, turpissimus visu. 



§ 174.* II. THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT A SUB- 
JECT. 

Rule LVI. One verb governs another, without 
a subject, in the infinitive; as, 

7]of«ro Uyeiv, he began to say. 

imduueG) ^invQ^veiv^ I desire to learn. 



§ 174. THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT A SUBJECT. 259 

Rule LVII. The infinitive mood is governed 
by adjectives denoting fitness, ability, capacity, 
and the contrary ; as, 

dsivog leysiv, powerful in speaking. 
a^Log davfiacrai, worthy to be admired, 

Note. It is also used after substantives ; as, i^ovaiav yivzcBai, power to be- 
come. 

Obs. I. The infinitive under these rules is in the same 
clause with, and expresses the cause, end, or object, of the ac- 
tion, state, or quality expressed by the verb or adjective that 
governs it The verbs that govern the infinitive directly in 
this way are such as denote desire, ability, intention, endeav- 
our, and the like ; as, idelev yo&yeiv, lie zvishes to write; dio- 
poul (jqv eldeov, I beg of you to come. 

Obs. 2. The infinitive is sometimes placed after verbs to 
express the design or consequence of that which they . affirm. 
Thus used it is governed not by the verb but by some such 
word as (Sore understood; as, ey&v ode navia rtaoao xelv , i. e. 
(o(tte navTa TtaocKo yziv ■, I am here (so as) to furnish all things ; 
yxouBv (#crrs) (xavQ^vew, we have come (in order) to learn. 

Obs. 3 A verb denoting an incidental object not directly in 
view, is put in the infinitive with <SoTe after a verb or adjec- 
tive ; as, (filoTiaoTocTog r\v gjots Tt&vxa -dTto/nelvocv^ he was very 
ambitious, so as to endure all things, &c. This construction 
takes place especially after such words as zoaoviog, rowvwg, 
cvio)g, and the like. 

Obs. 4. The infinitive is sometimes put after verbs and ad- 
jectives which indicate some state or quality, in order to ex- 
press the respect in which that state or quality obtains, and 
would be expressed in Latin by the supine, or gerund in .do, 
and in English by the substantive ; as. 

&g ideip acpalpsro, as it appeared to the sight* 

Oeieiv iivkaoioiv bixoloi, like the winds in running, 
ovde TzoovcpalvET IdeoOai, nor did he appear to the sight. 

Obs. 5. The infinitive active is used very frequently in 
Greek in the sense of the latter supine, or infinitive passive in 
Latin ; as, 

<kvy\o (jdojv (pvMwoeiv, a man is more easy to be guarded 

against, 
(jadla not el v, things easy to be done. 



260 THE INFINITIVE WITH A SUBJECT. § 175. 

§ 175. III. THE INFINITIVE WITH A SUBJECT 

1. A subordinate or dependent clause, containing a verb and 
its subject, is connected with the leading or primary clause, in 
two ways. First, by a conjunctive particle, such as on, &g, 
and the like; as, leyovav oxi 6 ixalgog TiOvTjxe, they say that 
our companion is dead. In this case the verb is in a finite 
mood and its subject in the nominative. Second, without a 
conjunction; as, Xiyovoi xbv kxaloov xeOvdvai, they say that our 
companion is dead. In this case the verb is in the infinitive 
mood, and its subject usually in the accusative. 

2. Sometimes both modes of expression are united in the 
same sentence ; as, eaxi Xoyog wg Z 4 q^tj g 4xo[iI'Q8to ig xr\v 
> Aalr)v nX&ovxa de /uvv avsfiov 2tqv/uov[t]v 6noX a 6 eX v. 
Sometimes a sentence begins with the one form and ends with 
the other ; as, Myovoi, d* ri/uag, coc uxlvdwov 6lov tjb^ev^ they 
say that we live a life free from danger ; as if it had been in- 
tended to say, leyovoi d y ^ag dxlvdvror Slov tr^v ; this is called 
anacolouthon, § 175. Rem. 

The construction of the subordinate clause connected by 
the first of the above methods, is subject to the rules § 138, 
139. ; connected by the last, it comes under the rules that fol- 
low: 



Rule LVIII. The infinitive mood in a depen- 
dent clause has its subject in the accusative; as, 

Tovg 0eoi>g,7i&vzu eld4vav he said that the gods know 
I'leyev, all things. 

Exc. When the subject of the infinitive is the 
same with the subject of the preceding verb, it 
is put by attraction in the same case ; as, 

EcpTj elvou <jTQaz7]y6g, he said that he was a general. 

3. In this construction the subject of the infinitive is gene- 
rally omitted except when emphasis is required ; as, eq>y txvxbg 
elvui (jToaxriybg, ovx Ixetvovg, he said that he was a general, thai 
they were not generals. This construction has been frequent- 
ly imitated in Latin; thus, Sensit medios delapsus in hostes. 
Virg. Uxor invicti Jovis esse nescis. Hon. 

06s. 1. In a few instances constructions vary both from the 



§ 175. THE INFINITIVE WITH A SUBJECT. 261 

rule and the exception. Occasionally the subject of the in- 
finitive is in the nominative when it signifies a different thing 
from the subject of the preceding verb, and in the accusative 
when it signifies the same. 

Obs. 2. If the subject of the infinitive be the same with 
the object of the preceding verb, it may either be in the accu- 
sative according to the rule, or stand before the infinitive, in 
the case governed by the preceding verb ; thus, 

xslevu) vol tovto Tcoielv. or ) T 7 7 ,. . 

, , ^ > 1 command you to do this. 

hsKevm as TOVTO TlOlBlV, ) D 

In either case there is an ellipsis; — in the first form, of oe, 
the immediate subject of the infinitive ; and in the second, of 
croi, the remote object of the preceding verb. Both these 
modes of construction are common, and sometimes they are 
intermixed in the same sentence ; thus, Lysias, diopctt -bimv 
toc dixata ipi]<ploaod(xi, sv 6 v ijlov fti v ov g otv, x. t. I. I beg of 
you to determine, justly considering that, &c. Here ti/utir 
stands before the infinitive governed in the genitive by diofiai, 
and yet evduuovuivovg follows in the accusative, evidently 
agreeing with iuocg the subject of the infinitive understood. 
It might have been with equal propriety put in the genitive. 

Rem. Constructions of this kind in which the end of a 
sentence does hot grammatically correspond with the begin- 
ning, are called Jluacoloutha. For other examples of this see 
§ 148. Rem. 1., § 175. 2. The most common form of these 
appears to be when the speaker commences a period in the 
manner required by the preceding discourse, but afterwards, 
especially after a parenthetic clause, passes over into another 
construction. The Anacolouthon, however, is never adopted 
by Greek writers unless something is thereby gained in con- 
ciseness, perspicuity, smoothness, or emphasis. 

Obs. 3. When used in the passive voice, the subject of the 
infinitive is changed into the subject of the preceding verb, 
or it remains unchanged in the accusative, the passive verb 

being used impersonally; as, 

Mybtui Kvoog } . a „ e . 

, ,' * > vsveouou Kaubvuov. 

AeysTui Kvoov } ' 7 

Cyrus is said to have been ) , 7 ' -. , 

r , J . • 7 . 7 , n > the son of Cambyses. 

It is said that Cyrus was ) J u 

Obs. 4. The same observation is true of the verb doxeT ; 
thus, doxel avibg elvai, he seems to be; or Soxel uvtov sbou, it 



262 THE INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE. § 176. 

seems that he is. The following sentence unites the two, xat 
U^v ^yyelxai ys rj [*& XV io/vga yeyov&vai xul nollov g red. 
vkvai, and indeed it was said that the battle was oh- 
stinale, and that many died. In like manner the adjectives 
dlxawg, dialog, (pavegog, &c. with the verh el/ul, are used for 
the neuter gender with ^onrl,as impersonals ; thus, dlxatog elfjv 
for dUouov ion, &c. it is just that /, &c. ; dr\log loxw^ for dr\lov 
ioxiv ai)xbv — it is manifest that he — . § 177. Obs. 3. 

Obs. 5. The case after the infinitive of substantive or neu- 
ter verbs, or passive verbs of naming, must be the same with 
the case before it, if the words refer to the same thing ; as, 
Nom. e(pr] (aiuTug) elvai oxgaxijybg, he said that he was a gene- 
raJ ; Gen. xax eyvwxoiwv 7\di] fxr^exi xQeiaaovbiv elfai, having 
learned that they are no longer suterior; Dat. £<p' \iilv ioxl 
to ems vxioc elvav^it depends upon ourselves to be rea- 
sonable. See § 139. III. And this observation holds good 
whether the word before the infinitive be its proper subject, or 
(that being omitted, see num. 3.) the subject or the object of the 
preceding verb. 

Obs. 6. Whatever case is required before the infinitive by 
the preceding rules, it continues the same though preceded by 
(h; or locrxe , or a preposition, because the preposition affects not 
the subject of the infinitive, but belongs to the infinitive itself 
or to the whole clause; thus, ovdelg xr\lvaovxog eaxwnwg fi[UP 9 
wffTS xovg vouovg nug u6ug (jl![ dovvat dlxrjv, Let NO ONE be SO 
great among yon that breaking the laws he can go unpunish- 
ed; r^uxoxavov dia to [xr\ aocpol slvut,, they erred because 
they were not wise. 



§ 176. IY. THE INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE. 

Rule LIX. The infinitive is often put abso- 
lutely with the particles cog^uars, 7tpiv, d%pt, ^xpt ) 
cfcc. before it; as, 

6; ideTv uvOoomov, when the man saw. 

noiv anodupeip to noadlov, before the child, died. 

<bg /uixobv fisy&Xq &lxdoon 9 to compare small with great. 

Obs. 1. c Sl$ with the infinitive is frequently used to limit a 
proposition in the sense of " as far as;" thus, (hg i/ue sv /ue/u- 
vr\odou, as far as I recollect distinctly ; 8>g yi {ioi doxeTv, as it 



§ 177. OF THE PARTICIPLE. 263 

seems to me. But <hg is frequently omitted ; hence such ex- 
pressions as, ov tioIKd loyti elneTv, in jew words ; /uixgov delv, 
little is wanting, almost ; nollov delv, much is Wanting, 

Obs. 2. The infinitive is often used for the imperative 
mood, oo«, SUne, oxoneX, &c. being understood; as, /aloe iv 
fieia yaioovTMv^ xkals iv justu xXcuoptojv, KEJOiCEivith them that 
do rejoice, and weep with them that weep. Sometimes, also, 
for the optative, dog, delw, or ev^o/uai, being understood ; as, 
6) Zev eay e v e u 6 at uoi * Adr\valovg Ttaaodai, O Jupiter, MAY IT 
be granted to me to punish the Athenians. 

Obs. 3. The infinitive eivai is sometimes absolute and re- 
dundant, both with and without the article ; viz. 

1st. After adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions ; thus, £x&v 
elvai for ex(bv, willing ; as; ez&v av elvai tovto 7toir[- 
uaiiii, I would willingly do this. So the phrases to 
ovunav elvai, generally ; oi y slvcu.with respect to you; 
to jusp ttjusoop elvai, to-day at least; xaT& tovto elvai, 
with respect to this ; to vvv elvou, now; to en exeivovg 
elvai, as far as depends on them. 
2d. After verbs of calling, choosing, making, &c. ; as, 00- 
(piorriv, ovofi&'Cpvat ye top avdooc elvai, they call the man 
a philosopher ; ol de o-v[i{na%6v {iiv ellovzo slvai, they 
chose him as an ally. 



§ 177. OF THE PARTICIPLE. § 79. 

Rule LX. Participles like adjectives agree 
with their substantives in gender, number, and 
case. 



Rule LXI. Participles govern the case of 
their own verbs ; as, 

ol noleuiOL to loytov eldozsg, the enemies knowing the 

oracle. 
tovtmv iuov deouevov, T being in want of these 

things. 
The Greek language having a participle in every tense of 
every voice, uses it much more extensively than the Latin. 
The priucipal purposes for which it is employed are the fol- 
lowing : 



264 OF THE PARTICIPLE. § 177. 

1. A participle is joined with another verb agreeing with its 
subject in order, 

1st. Simply to connect an accompanying with the main 
action in the same subject. Thus used, the participle 
and verb are to be rendered as two verbs with a con- 
junction ; as, naoslO&it rig dei^dm), let any one coma 
forward and shew. 

2d. To combine the accompanying witb the main action as 
the cause, manner, or means of accomplishing it; in 
which use it is equivalent to the ablative gerund in 
Latin. Cause ; as, t/ noL^aag zareyvihOr, davarov ; 
for having done what (quid faciendo) was he con- 
demned to die ? Means ; as, s-dsgyeT&v avzov; £xtt]- 
g6lih]v, J gamed them by kindness, (benejaciendo) ; 
Xrji'Qo^ievoi ^Cooiv, they live by plunder (populando). 
Manner ; as, cpevywv excpsuyei, he escapes by flight 
(fugiendo) ; Tol/ur\(rag eiorjXOs, he went in .boldly 
(audendo). This construction is found also in Latin 
writers ; thus, Hoc faciens vivam melius ; Hor. by 
doing this I shall live better ; as if, hoc faciendo, &c. 

Note. The participle thus used agrees with the agent in any case ; e. g. 
in the dative; as, a to is dv pwiro i s eSwxav ol deol fiaQovci Siaxpiveii/, 
which the gods have put it in the power of men to find out by study ; the ac- 
cusative; as, a e^caTiv dpiQuooavTag >) jicrpriaaurag rt arfi^avras ddcuat, ivkich ive 
may know by counting, by measuring, or by weighing. 

3d. To limit a general expression by intimating the action 
in respect of which the assertion is made ; as, tidixeUs 
noUuov aoyovxe g, ye do wrong in beginning the 
war. 
Obs. 1. In this way it is used with verbs that signify any 
emotion of the mind to show the cause of the emotion ; as, 
rfioufxi phv (j el aid co v, I am rejoiced at seeing you ; o^denoxs 
aol uFTuuelr^aei ev 7toir]a u v ti, you will never repent OF hav- 
ing DONE A KINDNESS. 

2. It is used for the purpose of further describing a person 
or thing ment oncd in a sentence, and may be rendered by 
the relative and the verb ; or for connecting- with a statement 
some relation of time, c%use, or condition, expressed in En- 
glish by such words us when, while . after that ; — because, since, 
as ; — if, although, &c. ; — the relation intended, and of course 
the proper iendering of the participle, will generally have to 
be ascertained from the nature of the sentence itself, or from 



§ 177. OP THE PARTICIPLE. 265 

the connexion in which it stands; thus, ensoxsTtTou^v tov hat. 
gov vooovvtgc, urny signify according to the context; 1 visit- 
ed my comrade who was sick ; or when, or because, he was 
sick; devdga {ihv T^^devra Ta%£mg ytieTai, trees, though 

LOPPED, (WHICH HAVE BEEN LOPPED, AFTER THEY HAVE 

been lopped, when lopped) of their branches quickly grow 
again. 

Obs. 2. When the article precedes the participle referring 
to a word already expressed or easy to be supplied, they may 
be rendered by the relative and the indicative ; as, 6 egxo^svog, 
he that comet h, § 134. 8. 

• 

Note. The participle, with the article before it, is frequently equivalent to 
a noun designating the doer of the action expressed by the verb; as ol 
ypaibafxevot LcoKpdrrjv, the accusers of Socrates. There is, however, this dif- 
erence ; the participle expresses the. doer in a state of action, the substan- 
tive does not ; thus, b SovXog is a man in the condition of a slave: h SovXevw 
is one, at the time referred to, performing the part of a slave. 

■ 
The Participle as the Infinitive. 

3 The participle in Greek is often used as the infinitive, 
and has for its subject, according to the sense, either the subject 
or the object of the preceding verb, with which it always agrees 
m gender, number, and case. Hence the following varieties. 

The participle takes as its subject and agrees : 

1st. With the subject of the preceding verb either in the 
nominative or accusative. Nom. as, ov navooiuxxi yg&yuw, 
I will not cease to write; oldot dvipb; fbv, I 'know that I 
am a mortal. Ace. as^yovaiv aitzbv /uifiyrjodat noii\oav m 
t«, they say that he remembers having done it, or, that 
he did it. 

2d. With the immediate object of the preceding verb in 
the accusative ; as, aa<pibg xureuudov cpvcQiiuxa aviov 
ifitv iyziavra, I plainly perceived that he had infused 
poison for you. 

3d. With the remote object in the genitive or dative. Gen. 
as, riodonrv ai>mv olo/uivav thai ooymaiav, I perceived 
that they fancied themselves to be very wise; Dat. 
[iridinoie fi€T6fj4l n ai fi.ot oiy^oavii, I never repented of 
having been silent, or, that I was silent. 

4th. When the verb is followed by a reflexive pronoun, the 
participle may agree either with the pronoun or the 
nominative to the verb ; as, odvoidu hfiaviti &{U(xqt*v<dv 
or dfia^idivovTi, I am conscious that lam doing wrong ; 



266 OF THE PARTICIPLE. § 177 

kavrbv ofideig otiohoyeT xaxovoyog S)v, or, xaxovoyov ovrot, 
nobody confesses that he himself is ivicked. 

Obs. 3. The verbs after which the participle is thus used, are 
1st. Yerbs of sense ; as, to see, hear*, &c. 2. Verbs denoting 
any act or feeling of the mind; as, to know, perceive, discern, 
consider, observe, experience, shew, recollect. 3. Verbs signi- 
fying to overlook, to permit, to happen, to persevere, bear, en- 
dure, to be pleased or contented with, to cease, and to cause to 
cease. 

Also with adjectives signifying clearness, as, dr(kog el ovxo- 
cpuvnav, it is clear that you are a Sycophant. Sometimes &n 
with the indicative is used ; as, evdijlog jbv on riand^sio, by its 
being manifest that he loved. § 175. Obs. 4. 

Obs. 4 Instead of the participle with the above mentioned 
verbs the infinitive is sometimes used; but in that case, the idea 
expressed is usually different ; e. g., 1. ala^hvouat noir\oag, I 
am ashamed to have done it ; ala^vro/uat Txovr\oai, lam ashamed 
to do it, and therefore will not. 2. 6 x e W& v ^{Q^aTo yevo/aevog, 
the winter was come on, had actually commenced ; 6 xeip&v 
r\Q'/ETO ylyveoOui, the winter was beginning to come on, but had 
not yet arrived. 3. r\xovoa tov 2l7] i aoo0svrj liyovra, I heard 
Demosthenes speak ; r\yiov(ja rbv <di]{uoadev7] Xeyeiv, I heard, 
(i. e. I am told,) that .Demosthenes says. 4. icpatveio ka«/W, 
he evidently wept; lyulveTo ytlaleiv, he seemed to weep. 5. With 
verbs to declare, to announce, the participle represents the thing 
announced as a fact, the infinitive, as matter of report, but not 
asserted as a fact. With many verbs, however, it is indiffer- 
ent which construction is used ; as, ^v/ucpooop ton ravra jtq(x/. 
6r[vai, or Tixvra £,uucpoou ban 7iQa%0evT(x, it is unfortunate that 
these things were done. 

Obs. 5. After verbs of motion the future participle is used to 
point out the design or object of the motion expressed by the 
verb, and is rendered by the English phrase u in order to; 17 
as, 09 ye did(x£btv wgurjuui, I have hastened forward in order 

TO TEACH THEE. 

In this construction w; is often interposed before the parti- 
ciple; as 7tuqeoxEvrx^oi>To (hg nole^oovreg, they prepared to 
make war. 

Sometimes the present participle is used in this way; as, 
Tiiunei fd cpioovia, he sent me to carry. The future participle 
after to'/oucu is only a circumlocution for the future tense ; as, 
lo%ouat, cpgixouv, for (jp^crw, I iv ill speak ; egxo/Liai&noOavovpevog 
J shall die, or, / am about to die. 



§ 177. OF THE PARTICIPLE. 267 

4. Joined with Iup66lp(h, cpdapw, rvyx&pw, diutslia), &c. the 
participle is used to express the main action or state, and ren- 
dered in the' indicative, while the verb with which it is joined, 
expressing a subordinate circumstance, is often rendered as an 
adverb; thus, elude v tircexyvycdp, he escaped unperceived; top 
<povsu luvQavei Soaxav, he unconsciously feeds his murderer; 
eyOiyv acpsltbp, I took it away just before; exv/ev am&p, he hap- 
pened to be going away ; ezv/ov nuqopjeg, they ivere accident- 
ally present ; diurelel tkxqwp, he is continually present. 

Note. The participle wV is wanting with adjectives and sometimes with- 
out them ; as, Tvyyavzi ko\yi (sc. owru,) she happens to he beautiful. With 
a negative, tpQavot may be rendered scarcely, no sooner ; as, ovk e^Orjaav nvdd- 
pevoi, they no sooner heard. Sometimes it is followed by the infinitive in- 
stead of the participle; as, novrjpds av adao-su TsXevrfia-ai npiv, k. t. A., a wretch- 
ed man would sooner die than, &c. 

Obs. 6. In the same sense these verbs stand sometimes 
, in the participle with other finite verbs ; as, and rel/eog uIto 
IuOup, he sprung unobserved from the wall ; i\pneq jvyx&vwv 
tirtecrxOiUTiv, ivhich I happened to promise. 

5. A participle with the verbs elpl, ylvo/iai, tinagxco, M/m, and 
r { 'A(x), is often used as a circumlocution for the verb to which it 
belongs, aud these verbs take the place of auxiliaries ; thus, 
7iQo^e6i]x6reg jjauv for 7igoe6e6riHeioup, they had gone forward; 
yr\uag M%sig for syyfiag, you have married; Oavfi&aag h%w for 

\ Teduv/Liuxu, I have admired, &c. 

Obs. 7. Instead of a simple verb signifying "to go away," 
the verb ol'/ouui is frequently joined with a participle ; the for- 
mer to express the idea of departure, the latter to connect with 
1 it the idea of the manner, both of which may generally be ren- 
dered by a simple verb; thus, d/ex (knonT&fispog, he departed 
flying, i. e. he flew away; &x eT0 (psvyixiv, he departed fleeing, 
he escaped; (j)%opto dnodeopreg, they rail away ; otyejui, Oupwp, 
he is dead. Horner uses 6uIpuj in the same manner. 



6. The participle in definitions of time is often joined with 



j 

1 the adverbs afiilxa, evdvg /ustu^v, dfia, the last with the dative; 
as, (h; uvilxu yevoftevog, as soon as he was born ; fisTu^v ogvo- 
oup, during the digging ; afiu tcu r\Qi etidvg aoxo/uepcp, on the 
first commencement of spring. 

7. The participles of some verbs when joined with other 
verbs appeared to be used in an adverbial sense, or at least to 
denote a circumstance which in our language is better express- 
ed by an adverb; as, agxopepog elnop, I said in the beginning , 



268 THE CASE ABSOLUTE. § 178. 

aol-dusvog &n6, especially ; tsXevt&v, lastly; dia'lin&v xq6vov, 
ajter some time. tf>eoojj>»and aywv with verbs to give, to place, 
and the like, are redundant ; as, cpio^v dwxs, he gave; — with 
verbs of motion cptowv expresses zeal, quickness, &c. with their 
cases they are equivalent to the Latin cum, with, A participle 
joined to its own verb, or to one of similar signification, ap- 
pears to be redundant; as, I'acriv Xovreg, they ivent; ecpi] Ae'ycov, 
he said ; leyst, cp&g, he says. 

0^/=* For the dative of the participle with a personal pro- 
noun after the verb iarl, see § 148. Obs. 3. 



§ 178. THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 

Rule LXII. A substantive with a participle 
whose case depends on no other word, is put in 
the genitive absolute ; as, 

Ofov diddvTog, ovdhv la/vst <p66vog, WHEN GOD GIVES, envy 
avails nothing. 

Rem. The genitive is said to be absolute in this construction, because it is 
neither governed by, nor is dependent on, any word expressed or understood, 
in the sentence with which it is connected, and might be separated from 
it without affecting its construction. "Yet, strictly speaking, it is not really 
absolute in such a sense as to be without government, or that there is no 
more reason for its being in the genitive than in any other case ; for the ab- 
solute clause will generally be found to express a circumstance of time, 
and so may come under § 160. Obs. 2 ; as, 

Ki>pov SadiXevovrog, in the reign of Cyrus, (sc. em.) • 

Qcayvw augtrai Ocoi, Bc\6vtw, Theagnes is safe from THE GODS WIL- 
LING IT. 

Ohs. 1. The participles of etui, ylvofMu. and some others, are 
frequently omitted ; as, £uov [lovrjg, sc. ovcrj]g, I being alone. 

Obs. 2. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence is used 
absolutely with the participle as if it were a noun ; as, nvg 
rtveZv tov; tuvqovq, [ivdoloyT]d6vTog, that bulls breathe jive, being 
circulated as a story. 

Obs. 3. The dative absolute is used to express the fixed 
timc,(see § 160. Obs. 1.) ; as, neqCC'Svzi dh tw evwviGj, after the 
year had elapsed ; and also when the subject of the participle 



§ 179. CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 269 

may be considered as that in reference to ivhich the action of 
the verb takes place. 

Obs. 4. The nominative and accusative are sometimes 
used absolutely. These instances, however, probably arise from 
an omission of some words, which, being supplied, complete 
the construction ; as, uvollavreg tov (Ko/Ltarog noqovg, n6Xiv yl- 
vexai ib nvq, when they have opened the pores of the body, there 
is again fire; i. e. (hg avol^avrsg <ku, &c. ; jocvra yevofieva, 
these things being done ; i. e. /ustu ravra, &c. 

Obs. 5. The participles of impersonal verbs, and other verbs 
used impersonally, are put absolutelf in the nominative or ac- 
cusative neuter ; as, £*ov, it being permitted ; deov, it being 
necessary ; doxovv, since it seems proper ; thus, di& it /usvstg, 
t£bv aniivui, ivhy dost thou remain, it being in thy power 
to depart 1 

Obs. 6. The construction with the participle is often pre- 
ceded by the particles &g wore, die, ola, <5r], olov, when a reaSon 
of something done by another is expressed ; as, loidna <bg 
naviag eldoTag, or navrcov sldoi&v, he held his peace because 

ALL KNEW. 



§ 179. CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions serve to connect words and sentences toge- 
ther ; this connexion is of two kinds : 

I. Of the parts of a sentence which are complete of them- 
selves and independent of each other. These are connected 
by conjunctions, simply connective or disjunctive, § 125. 1.2; 
and the parts thus connected have a similar construction ; 
hence 

Rule LXIil. Conjunctions couple the same 
moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns 
and pronouns ; as, 

^(kdov xccl eWov, they came and saw. 

ilua tov 7iaiega xal Tr\v fi^iega, honour thy father and 

thy mother. 

Obs. 1. To this rule there are many exceptions as it re- 
ipects the tenses of verbs ; see an example § 76. Obs. 3. 

II. But the parts of a compound sentence are often various- 

23* 



i 



270 CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. § 179 

]y reiated ; and have a certain dependence upon each other, the 
nature of which is indicated by the conjunction employed and 
the mood of the verb with which it is joined. The general 
principles of this connexion are expressed in the following 
rules : 



Rule LXIV. Conjunctions which do not im- 
ply doubt or contingency, are for the most part) 
joined with the indicative mood (§ 170.) ; as, 

ovx ay noielsyev si fjL7\ Into- he would not have joretolditm 
T6VOSV ahjOevoeiv, unless he had believed 

it ivoidd prove true. ' 



"Rule LXV. Conjunctions which imply doubt 
or contingency, or which do not regard a thing 
as actually existing, are for the most part joined 
with the subjunctive and optative moods (§ 172.) : 
as, 

el' xvg alqsolv jxoi doty, if ANY ONE SHOULD GIVE me the 

choice. 

Obs. 2. As the meaning of a conjunction varies indifferen 1 
connexions, the same conjunction is often found with differeir 
moods. On this subject no very definite or satisfactory rule:: 
can be given. 

For further remarks on conjunctive and adverbial partidtea- 
see § 125. 



§ 180, 181. prosody. 271 

PART IV. 



PROSODY. 

Prosody, in its common acceptation, treats of the quantity 
l| of syllables in the construction of verses. In the ancient 
jjj grammarians Ttoouadla applies to accents. 

§ ISO. QUANTITY OF VOWELS. 

iii 1. The vowels e, o, are naturally short; as, leyofisv. 
Di . 2. Tj. co, are naturally long ; as, Arjiw. 

3. «, *, u, are doubtful ; as, a^vvw. 

4. Diphthongs and contracted syllables are long ; as, ixei, 
kpXeg, contr. ocpTg. 

ft ' - 

§ 181. POSITION. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule 1, A short or doubtful vowel, before two consonants 
or a double letter, is almost always long ; as, 

TidlXug, Ttooiaxpsv, core Zevg. 

This rule holds good in Epic poetry, except in proper names and in words 
which could not be used in any other situation in the verse. In dramatic? 
; writers observe the following exceptions : 

Exc. A short or doubtful vowel before a mute and a liquid 
,. is common ; as, naiooxlog, or nargoxlog. 

Obs. 1. A short vowel before a mute and liquid is generally short. But 
before a middle mute (6, y, 8,) followed by p in tragedy, is mostly long; and 
followed by A, /*, v, is almost always long, both in tragedy and comedy. 

Obs. 2. A short vowel before two liquids is always long, and sometimes 
before a single liquid, which in this case should be pronounced as if double j 
thus, t\a6e } pronounced ZWaSe. 

Note 1. A short vowel in the end of a word before p in the beginning of 
(the word following, is long in the dramatic poets; fye piirov. 

Note 2. We sometimes find a short syllable before two consonants (botli 
mutes), but this is rare and should not be.imitated. 



* In the Prosody the accents are omitted, as they often interfere with the 
nark for the quantity. 



_ 



272 prosody. § 182, 183 

§ 182. II. ONE VOWEL BEFORE ANOTHER. 

Rule II. A vowel before another vowel is short, unless 
lengthened by poetic license ; as, nolv&l'xog. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1 . a is long in the penult of nouns in -auv, -aovog ; as, Malawi*, 'M.a^aovog 1 

And sometimes when the genitive ends in ~a>vog ; as, Hoaei Saw \ 
TLoaeiSawvog. 
in feminine proper names in -a'Cg; thus, Oat's. 

2. t is long in the penult of nouns in -imp, -iovos, and sometimes -twos ; as! 

£2{57on/, Qpiovos or QpTaivos ; except %rwv. 

in the penult of verbs in -tw ; as, rlco: but the Attic tragii 

writers have -?co. 

3. i is common in the penult of nouns in -ia and -i>7 ; as, xaXTa and *aAFa i 

4. v is common in the penult of verbs in -uu; as, iV^vw or to-^iJw. 

Rule III. Long vowels and diphthongs are mostly short at 
the end of words when the next word begins with a vowel; as. 

*A^(D eUcov o de \ xev xs/oUavsTa? I d> xev XxUb^icu. 

Obs. 1. A vowel in the end of a word, before a word beginning with z\ 
vowel, does not suffer elision, as in Latin, unless an apostrophe is substi- 
tuted, § 5. 4. 

Obs. 2. Two vowels, forming two syllables, frequently in poetry coalesce 
into one; as, ypvauo, II. o. 15, where up form a short syllable. This fre-l 
quently takes place though the vowels be in different words ; as, ?Tovk a\tg 
11. i. 349. § 189. 2. 



§ 183. III. THE DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN FIRST 
AND MIDDLE SYLLABLES. 

Rule IV. A doubtful vowel before a simple consonant isi 
short ; as xaxog. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. a is long in nouns in -a//coi/, -ai/a>p, -apog ; as, TrcSoSnfjioyVf ayavoip, fxvffapog. 

in numerals in -oaiog ; as, StaKoatog. 

in derivatives from verbs in -aw pure and -paw ; thus, dvidroi i 

from dviau)] iaainog from idofxai ; Karapdrog from Karapdofxai ] Ota' 
rrjg and Bcdna from Ocdofxai ; Trepaaijxog from -rrepau) ; irp&aig from 
irwpdcKU) for) irpdw. 



§ 184. prosody. 273 

2. i is long in the penult of nouns in -11/17, "fij, -irm, -iris \ thus, Ji^, A^- 

poSiTTj, 7roXcr^?, 7roXir*j. 

in the penult of verbs in -160}, ~ivo) ; thus, Tpl6oi y irlvoy ; so ai- 

so Klvsay, Slveoiy &c. 

3. v is long in verbals in -vjxa t -v/*o£, -vTrjp, -vros, -VTwp j as, Xvpa, %fy»>£| 

in pronouns ; as, 'v/m?. 

in the penult of verbs in -w&>, -vpci), -v^o>, -v/«; as, ttXvj/o), 

kvpoj, ^joC^w, 0&/u. Psvyvvjii* 
in adverbs in -vSov j as, SorpvSov. 



§ 184. IV. THE DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN FINAL 
SYLLABLES. 

Rule V. a, *, v, in the end of a word are short; as, fiovcroi, 
ugXX, ylvxv. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. A in the end of a word is long, viz. 

— In nouns in -ca, -Sa, -9a ; as, 0£2, A?7<Ja, Mapda ; exc. aKavBS.. 

— In the dual number ; as, npocpriTa, [xovo-a. 

— In polysyllables in -aia ; as, SeX^aia: 

in -eta, derived from verbs in evcj ; as, Soviets., 6aai- 

Xfita, from SovXevo), SaatXevo). But SaciXeid., a queen, has the final 

'{ a short. 

1 — In -ta ; as, icaXid, except verbals in -rpia ; as, \pa\Tpta; and Sii t /xtcf, 
roTviS. 

— In the vocative of nouns in -as of the 1st declension ; as, Aivua from 
Aiveiag. 

— In feminines from adjectives in -os ; as bfxoia, hpercpa. 

— In nouns in -pa not preceded by a diphthong ; as, rj^pa, xnpd. Ex- 
cept dyKvpa, yetyvpS, fcepicvpa, o\vpa, aKoXo-rrevSpdy vfvpa, ravaypit, and 
compounds of fierpo) ; as, yeojixerpa. 

— In poetic vocatives ; as, ITaXXa for IlaXXa?. 

2. t final is long in the names of letters ; as, ttT. 

3. v final is long in the names of letters ; as, [xv, v\i. 

in verbs in -v[xi ; as, tyfl. 

in jiera^ and ypv. 

Rule VI. A doubtful vowel in the final syllable, followed 
yy a simple consonant, is short; as, pelav, la/unag. 



EXCEPTIONS. 
1. -av is long in masculines ; as, Tiro* ; and ndiv when not in composition. 



274 prosody. § 185 



in accusatives when their nominatives are long ; as, 'Aiveia 

from 'Ati/eiflff. 
in adverbs ; as, ayav. 

2. -ap in Kap and xpap is long ; in yap it is either long or short. 

3. -as is long in nouns of the first declension ; as, Atvetas, novcas. 

- in words having -avrog in the genitive ; as, rvxpas, rvipavroi, 

also in hiias, fya?, Kp&s. 

4. -iv is long in nouns in -iv which have -ivos in the genitive ; as, fay pi* 

faypivos. 

in nouns which have two terminations in the nominative 



as, axTlv or axrig. 
also in fjpTv, vplv. 

5. -is is long in monosyllables ; as, \Ts', but the indefinite ns is common 
in nouns which have two terminations in the nominative j as 

aKTTs, aKrlv. 
in feminine dissyllables in -is, -iSos, or -idos ; as, KvrjpTs, Kin 

fxiSos ; dpvTs, opvidos ; except aaizXs, epts, X a pi$i ana " a f* ew others. 
in polysyllables preceded by two short syllables ; as, nXSxa 

l*Ts. 

6. -w is long in nouns which have -vvos in the genitive ; as, pocvvv, poaawog 
in nouns which have two terminations in the nominative ; as 

tyopKVS) Or tyOpKyV. 

in accusatives from -vs in the nominative ; as, 6<ppvv from 6<ppvs 

in the ultimate of verbs in -vpi ; as, i<pvv from <f>vfjii. 

in pVv, now ; but in v9v, enclitic, it is short. 

-vp in the end of a word is always long ; as, paprvp. 

7. -vs is long in monosyllables ; as, ^s. 

in nouns which have two terminations in the nominative 

as, <popK^q, (popxw. 
in nominatives which have -wtos or -os pure in the genitive 



as, SeiKvvg, SetKvvvTos ; ocppvg, d(ppvos. 
■ in kmjws, KGjfivdos ; and 



in the last syllable of verbs in -vpi; as, fys?. 



§ 185. V. DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN THE INCRE 
MENT OF NOUNS. 



Rule VII. The quantity of the nominative remains in the 
oblique cases ; thus 5 Tuav 9 Tnuvog ; xvrjfMg, Tcvrj/uldog. 

EXCEPTIONS. 
1. -ty in the nominative shortens the crement j as, paprvp, paprvpos* 






§ 186. prosody. 275 

2. A vowel, long by position, in the nominative shortens the crement in 
the oblique cases ; as, av\a%, alhaKog. But nouns in -a| after a vowel have 
the crement long ; as, vza^ veaxog. 

Likewise Ocopa^ lepa?, KvcoSa.%, Kopda%, \a6paj-j oia£, pa!;, avpqta!;, (peva^ with 
many words in -up, -mog, and -«|, -iyog or -ucog ; to which add ypvxp, yvip, 
and generally "BeSpv^, SoiSv^ 6prv£, aapSv^. 

3. -os pure in the genitive, from a long syllable in the nominative, varies 
the crement ; as, Spvg, Sptiog, or Spvog. 

4. The dative plural, after a syncope, has the penult short ; as; narpdcn, 



§ 186. VI. DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN THE INFLEC- 
TION OF VERBS. 

The doubtful vowels, a, i, v, are short in verbs, unless it be otherwise spe- 
cified in the Rules. 

Rule VIII. a and v before -era in participles, and always 
before -ov in verbs, are long ; as, rvipacra, dsixvvaa, Tsrvcpacr^ 
dsixvvob. (§6. 18.) 

FUTURE. 

Rule IX. The first future in -ccaw, -tcrco, -i/aco, from -aco af- 
ter a vowel, or from -o«co, -*a>, -i0oo, -uw, lengthen the penult ; 
as, 

£<*co, saacn) ; dgaci), dgaao ; tkxj, tT<tco ; SgiOo), 6°oTo"0) ; la%v(D, loyvow. 

But the first future* in -aaco, -tcrco, -i/cfco, from -a£co, -t£w, -i>£w, 
shorten the penult ; as, 

Rule X. Liquid verbs shorten the penult in the first future; 
as, xoT>gj, xgivtb* 

Rule XI. The second future shortens the penult ; as, Te/u- 



THE OTHER TENSES. 






Rule XII. The doubtful vowels have the same quantity in 
ie tenses as in their roots ; thus, 

1 Root. Kplv — xpTvoj, IkoJpov, KpTvojiai^ eKpTvofxTji;. 

2 Root. KpTv, — Kptvco, KCKpiKa, eKexpTKSiv, KpTi/ov/iai, KpTdrjaojjiaij cKpTOriv, /c£<- 
pipa-i, hK£KpXjxr}v. 

2 Root. rt57r, — tvtto), ervnov, rvnovfjiaij ETVTroprjv, rSnrjaojxaiy er^nr]*, 

3 Root, rv-rr, — rervna, ireTVireiv. 



276 prosody. § 187. 

Kxc. 1. Liquid verbs in the first future active and middle, as in R. X. 

i 

Exc. 2. The initial t and v in the augmented tenses and moods are long •, j 
as, Iko^ou, Tk6iat]v. 

The quantity of a doubtful vowel in the root is ascertained as follows : 

I. Verbs in -aco pure, or in -oao) -tw, -i$w, and -vco, have 
the final vowel of the first root long, unless followed by a vow- 
el ; if followed by a vowel, it comes under R. II. All others 
are usually short. 

II. The final syllable of the second root is always sliort, 
unless made long by position. 

III. The first root of liquid verbs is shortened in the 1st! 
future, § 97. 1. 

SPECIAL RULES ^pR VERBS IN ft*. 

Rule XIII. The proper reduplication is short, unless made 
long by position ; as, rfOrjfu. The improper reduplication is 
common ; as, 'Xqfu or 'ttj/lu,. 

Rule XIV. «, not before -era or -o-t, is every where short ; 
as, loxa^iev, Igtolts. 

Rule XV. v is long in polysyllables, only in the singular 
of the indicative active ; every where else it is short ;* as, deix. 
vv{it,, dtixrvxojy dei7tvv{iai) &c. 

In dissyllables it is every where long ; as, Jv/n, 6vtov> Svpaij &c. 



§ 187. VII. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 

Rule XVI. Derivatives follow the quantity of their primi-< 
tives ; and compounds that of the simple words of which they 
are composed ; as, 

r\)ir\ — cltTjjios, o^orT/iOi, Tt/^fltj/cop, &C. 

T<pi — \<piy£i>£ia, l0t*A>7?, I0troj, &C. 

Aaoj — Aavpedov, MevcXaoj, &C 

Xvo), Auo-co — Avcravdpos, Xvaixatcos, &C. 

oia£, oiaKos — o('a<coo-rjOo0'>f, oiaKOvojjios, &C. 

ir$p — nvpavarris, trvpQopos, &,C. 

*otj Or piv — fiTvr}\aT£0)j -rroXXvpTvos, &C 



§ 183, 189. prosody. 277 

Rule XVII. a privative before two short syllables is fre 
quently long ; as, axauuxog. 

Also <yvv in composition is sometimes long; as, aZvirjfu* 



§ 188. VIII. DIALECTS. 

ATTIC. 

Rule XVIII. The Attics lengthen a in the accusative of 
nouns in .evg ; as, Savvlevg, ace. Saadeu, contrary to Rule V. 

Also, i instead of a, e, o ;• as, ravrl for ravra; bSi for bSe, 
The Paragogic t in pronouns (the dative plural excepted) and in adverbs, 
is long ; as, ourooT, vvvlj Dat. pi. tqvtohtV. 

IONIC. 

1. The Comparative in ~*ov shortens the neuter; the Attics lengthen it; 
as, /cetXAtoi/, I. KaWiov, A. 
( 2. In adjectives of time i is long ; as, 6-nuglvog. 

3. In verbs the Ionic a, at not following it, is short ; as, larai for fjvrau 

DORIC AND jEOLIC 

1. The Doric a is long; the iEolic is short; as, Aivaa, D. for Aivsiov; 
iirroTa, 2E. for l-nroTrjg, &C 

i 

§ 189. IX. POETIC LICENSE. 

1. The last syllable of a verse is common, except in Iambic, Trochaic, 

Anapaestic, and Greater Ionic. • 

2. The Hvgev^g unites two syllables into one ; as, 

I I I I I 

Xpixreo) ava cnc/jTroo) koli sXkjcteto izavrag A%aiou?, 

i — r i i i 

H \a6sT J r) qvk cvorjaev aaaaro 6e \i£ya dvfxoy, 

I— I I I I 

H /xs xeXeai <r)(eSiri nepaau fxcya \airfxa QaCkaaaris. 

3. The Arsis makes a short syllable in the end of a word long; as, 

I I i f I I 

Ai(!oios T£ fxoi ecrai 0iAS txvpe Seivog rs, 

I ■ I II I 

Lmrovg o' AvroixeSovra 6oo)g gevyvvnev avuye. 

Note 1. The Arsis means the elevation 6f the voice, which, in Hexame- 
ter verse, is always on the first syllable of a foot. 

Note 2. A short syllable is sometimes, and but very rarely, lengthened at 
the end of a foo* : thus, 

' „ i iii 

Lrj & em uev Yopyo) 6\oovpo)7rTg eaTe$avo)To, 

24 



278 



PROSODY. 



§ 190. 



Besides these deviations from the usual rules of quantity, the Poets, 
1. Lengthened a syllable, 1. By doubling or inserting a consonant; as, 
iSSeiae for Steiae ; SlktoXis for cLtto\is. 2. By changing a vowel into a diph- 
thong; as, Sevofiai for Seo nai. 3. By Metathesis; as, Znpadov for tirapQov. 

I. Shortened a syllable, By rejecting one vowel of a diphthong ; as, h\ov 
for cl\ov. 

III. Increased the number of syllables, 1. By resolving a diphthong; as, 
ai)T(-) for ay™. 2. By inserting or adding a letter or syllable ; as, aaa^&roq for 
aa^erog ; r/cAioj for f)\ios ; tft|70t for &i?. 

IV, Lessened the number of syllables, 1. By aphaeresis , &s, vspOe for evspSe. 
2. By syncope; as, Eypsro for syc^™. 3. By apocope and apostrophe; 
as, Su) for Soipa ; //vp*' for pvpia. 

Other varieties will be learned by practice. Many conjectures have been 
made with regard to the ancient orthography, and the prineipl.es of versifi- 
cation as depending upon it. But the best of them deserve the credit of in- 
genuity alone ; for, as they rest on no unquestionable authority, they are 
of little or no use. 



§ 190. OF FEET. 

A foot in metre is composed of two or more syllables strictly regulated 
by time ; and is either simple or compound. Of the simple feet, four are of 
two, and eight of three syllables. There are sixteen compound feet, each 
of four syllables. These varieties are as follows . 

Simple+feet of two Syllables. 

Pyrrichius ^ w 6e6g. 



Spondeus 

Iambus 

Troehasus 



TV7TTO>. 

Afyo). 

acofia. 



Simple feet of three syllables. 



Tribrachys 

Molossus 

Dactylus 

Anapaestus 

Bachius 

Antibachius 

Amphibrachys 

Amphimacer 



7r6\£fiog. 

£VX(o\fj. 

fidprvpog, 

6a<ri\cvs. 

k-nr\Tr\q. 

Seltcvvfjii, 

ridrjfii. 



§191. 



PROSODY. 



279 



Compound jeet of four syllables. 



Choriambus 


w; 


-- 




coicppoarvvr] 


a trochee and an iambus. 


Antispastus 


w — 






apapTY][xa 


an iambus and a trochee. 


Ionic a majore 





v-> 


— 


KOfffjLrjropa 


a spondee and a pyrrich. 


a minore 


v-^ ^^y 




— 


nXeovCKTris 


a pyrrich and a spondee. 


First Paeon 


— w 


>- 


w 


darpo\6yog 


a trochee and a pyrrich. 


Second 


^ — 


^ 


^ 


dvd^iog 


an iambus and a pyrrich. 


Third 


^ w 


— 


w 


dvdSr][ia 


a pyrrich and a trochee. 


Fourth 








Ocoyevrjg 
ayLap-wiXfi 




First Epitrite 


^ — 


— 


— _ 


dll ldillUUS. 

an iambus and a spondee. 


Second 


— v^ 


— 


— 


dvSpofpovTrjs 


a trochee and a spondee. 


Third 





^ 


— 


evpvadevr\g 


a spondee and an iambus. 


Fourth 





__ 


^x 


\(x)6r]rtipa 


and a trochee 


Proceleusmaticus 


s*_y w 


-^ 


w> 


Tro'Xeixiog 


two pyrrichs. 


Dispondeus 





— 


— 


avv5ov\evffbi 


two spondees. 


Diiambus 


W 


«— 


— 


lincfTdTrig 


two iambi. 


Ditrochseus 


— w 


— 


- 


Svarv^rjjxa 


two trochees. 


-<- 













§ 191. OF METRE. 

Metre, in its general sense, means an arrangement of syllables and feet 
tn verse, according to certain rules ; and in this sense applies, not only to an 
entire verse, but to part of a verse, or to any number of verses. Jl metre, in 
i specific sense, means a combination of two feet (sometimes called a syzy- 
*y) and sometimes one foot only. 

Note. The distinction between rhythm and metre is this : — the former re- 
fers to the time only, in resard to which, two short syllables are equivalent to 
me long; the latter refers both to the time and the order of the syllables. 
The rhythm of an anapaest and dactyl is the same ; the metre different. 
The term rhythm, however, is also understood in a more comprehensive 
sense, and is applied to the harmonious construction and enunciation of 

Ieet and words in coanexion ; thus, a line has rhythm when it contains a?iy 
lumber of metres of equal time, without regard to their order. Metre re- 
mires a certain number of metres, and these arranged in a certain order. 
Thus, in this line, 

Panditur interea domus omnipotentis Olympi, 

here is both rhythm (as it contains six metres of equal value in respect of 
jime) and metre, as these metres are arranged according to the canon for 
hexameter heroic verse, which requires a dactyl in the 5th, and a spondee 
n jJ|e 6th place. Change the order thus, 

Omnipotentis Olympi panditur interea domus, 

find the rhythm remains as perfect as before, but the metre is destroyed; it 
» no longer a Hexameter heroic line. 



280 prosody. § 192. 

§ 192. OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF METRE. 

1. Metre, in the general sense, is divided into nine species : 

1. Iambic. 4. Dactylic. 7. Ionic a majore. 

2. Trochaic. 5. Choriambic. 8. Ionic a minore. 

3. Anapaestic. 6. Antispastic. 9. Paeonic or Cretic. 
These names are derived from the feet which prevail in them. Each spe- 
cies was originally composed of those feet only from which it is named; 
but others, equal in time, were afterwards admitted under certain restrictions. 

It often happens that two species, totally dissimilar, are united in the same 
verse, which is then termed Asynartetes. When the irregularity is great, 
and it cannot be reduced to any regular form, it is called Polyschematistic 
or anomalous. 

Note. The invention or frequent use of any species of metre by a particu- 
lar poet, or its being used in some particular civil or religious ceremony, or 
appropriated to some particular subject or sentiment, has been the occasion 
of certain kinds of verse receiving other names than those specified above. 
Thus, we have the Asclepiadean, Glyconian, Alcaic, Sapphic, and others; 
named from the poets, Asclepiades, Glycon, Alcozus, Sappho, Phalcecus, So- 
tades, Archilochus, Alcman, Pherecrates, Jlnacreon, Aristophanes, &c. So 
also theProsodiacus (from npoaoSog), so called from being usea in the ap- 
proach to the altars on solemn festivals ; and the Parcemiacus, a kind of 
verse much used in the writing of proverbs, (Trapoifxiai.) 

In the iambic, trochaic, and anapaestic verse, a metre consists of two feet ; 
in the others, of one only. 

2. A verse or metre is farther characterized by the number of metres (in 
the specific meaning of the term) which it contains, as follows : 

A verse containing one Metre is called Monometer 
two Metres Dimeter. 

three Metres Trimeter. 

four Metres Tetrameter. 

five Metres Pentameter. 

six Metres Hexameter. 

seven Metres Heptameter. 

3. A verse may be complete, having precisely the number of metres which 
the canon requires ; or it may be deficient in the last metre ; or it may be 
redundant. To express this, a verse is farther characterized as follows : viz. 

1. Acatalectic, when complete. 

o ( Catalectic, if wanting one syllable. 

t Brachycatalectic, if wanting two syllables or one whole foot. 
3. Hypercatalectic, when there is one or two syllables at the end 
more than the verse requires : thus, # 

yj) \ccbv SpaxovTag cog. iEsch. Lept. Theb. 
— — -I— ^ — 

Js denominated " trochaic dimeter catalectic ;" the first term referring 



$ 193, 194, 195. prosody. 281 

to the species, the second to the number of metres, and the third to the apo- 

thesis or ending. 

Note. The two last terms, viz. that designating the number of metres and 
that which refers to the ending, are sometimes reduced to one ; thus, when 
a verse of a given species consists of two feet and a half, it is called Penthe- 
mimer; of three and a half, Hephthemimer, (five half feet, seven half feet) ; 
and when it consists of one metre and a half, it is called Hemiholius. 

The respective situation of each foot in a verse is called its place (sedes). 
The rules or canons of the different kinds of metre are briefly as follows y 



A § 193. I. IAMBIC METRE. Scheme, § 204. I. 

An iambic verse admits in the first, third, and fifth place, an iambus or •*% 
spondee. 

In the second, fourth, and sixth, an iambus only. 

Variation 1. The iambus in the odd places may be resolved into a tri- 
brach ; the spondee into a dactyl or an anapaest. 

Variation 2. The iambus in the even places (except the last) may be 
resolved into a tribrach. An anapoest is substituted for it in the case of a 
proper name only. 

Observe, however, 1st. that a dactyl should be avoided in the fifth place ; 
and, 2d. that resolved feet should not concur. 

Of this verse there are all varieties of length, monometers, dimeters, tri- 
meters (called also senarian, each line having six feet), and tetrameters. 



§ 194. II. TROCHAIC METRE. Scheme, § 204. II. 

A trochaic verse admits in the odd places a trochee only ; in the even pla- 
ces, a trochee or a spondee. 

The trochee may in any place be resolved into ztribrach, and the spon- 
dee into a dactyl or anapozst. 

A dactyl in the odd places occurs only in the case of a proper name. 

Trochaic verses are mostly catalectic. A system of them generally con- 
sists of catalectic tetrameters ; sometimes of dimeters, catalectic and acata- 
lectic intermixed. 

In tetrameters the second metre should always end a word. 



§•195. III. ANAPJESTIC METRE. Scheme, § 204. III. 

An anapaestic verse, without any restriction of places, admits either an 
anapozst, spondee, or dactyl. 



24* 



282 prosody. § 196. I 

J^xc, I. The dimeter catalectic, called paraemiacus, requires an anapaest I 
in the last place but one ; and is incorrect when a spondee is found there. 

Exc. 2. In some instances the proper foot is resolved into the proceleus- 
matic. 

Anapaestic verses are sometimes intermixed with other species, but are 
oftener in a detached system by themselves. 

A system is chiefly composed of dimeters under the following circum- 
stances : 
* 1. When each foot, or at least each metre, (syzygy), ends a word. 

2. When the last verse but one of the system is monometer acatalectic, 
and the last dimeter catalectic, with an anapaest in the second metre. 

In a system this peculiar property is to be observed, that the last syllable 
of each verse is not common (as in other species), but has its quantity sub- 
ject to the same restrictions as if the foot to which it belongs occurred in any 
other place of the verse. 

A series, therefore, of anapaestic verses, consisting of one or more senten- 
ces, is to be constructed as if each sentence was only a single verse. 

Note, The monometer acatalectic is called an anapaestic base. This is 
sometimes dispensed with in a system j in the parcemiacuSj rarely. 

To this metre belong the Jlristophanic, being catalectic tetrameters ; and 
the proceleusmatic, consisting of feet isochronal to an anapaest, and, for the 
most part, ending with it. 



§ 196. IV. DACTYLIC METRE. Scheme, § 204. IV. 

A dactylic verse is composed solely of dactyls and spondees. In this 
species one foot constitutes a metre. 

The common heroic is hexameter acatalectic^ having a dactyl in the fifth 
place and a spondee in the sixth. 

Sometimes in a solemn, majestic, or mournful description, a spondee 
takes the place of the dactyl in the fifth foot ; from which circumstance 
such lines are called spondaic. 

The elegiac pentameter consists of five feet. The first and second 
may be either a dactyl or a spondee at pleasure; the third must always be 
a spondee ; the fourth and fifth anapaests. 

Though a heroic verse is confined to a smaller number of admissible 
feet than an iambic verse, several licenses are allowed which are not used 
in the latter. 

The most considerable of these are : 

1. The lengthening of a short final syllable in certain cases, viz. at the 



§ 197, 198. prosody. 283 

cassural pause, and where its emphasis is increased by its beginning 
a foot. 

2. The hiatus, or the concurrence of two vowels, in contiguous words. 

That irregular sort of dactylics which Hephsestion calls JEolics, admits, 
in the first metre, any foot of two syllables : the rest must be all dactyls, 
except where the verse is catalectic, and then the catalectic part must be part 
of a dactyl. 

A second sort of dactylics, called by the same author Logacedics, require 
a trochaic syzygy at the end, all the other feet being dactyls. 



§ 197. V. CHORIAMBIC METRE. Scheme, § 204. V. 

The construction of an ordinary choriambic verse is very simple. m Each 
metre, except the last, is a choriambus, and the last may be an iambic syzy- 
gy, entire or catalectic. 

The iambic syzygy (two iambic feet) is sometimes found at the beginning 
and, in long verses, in other places ; but this happens less frequently. 

If any other foot of four syllables is joined with a choriambus, the verse 
is then more properly called epichoriambic. Of this there is a very great 
variety, and they sometimes end with an anwhibrach, sometimes with a ba- 
chius. 



§ 198. VI. ANTISPASTIC METRE. Scheme, § 204. VI. 

An antispastic verse, in its most usual and correct form, is constructed 
as follows : 

In the first p*ace, beside the proper foot, is admitted any foot of four syl- 
lables ending like an antispastus in the two last syllables ; i. e. either 

In the intermediate places only an antispastus. 

In the last, an iambic syzygv, complete or catalectic, or an incomplete 
antispastus. 

There is scarce any limit to the varieties in this species. 

The following are the most usual : 

1. In short verses, the proper foot frequently vanishes, and the verse con- 
sists of one of the above-mentioned feet and an iambic syzygy. 

2. All the epitrites, except the second, are occasionally substituted in the 
r several places in the verse, particularly the fourth epitrite in the second. 

3. If an antispastus begins the verse, and three syllables remain, what- 
ever those syllables ar,e, the verse is antispastic ; because they may be con- 



284 prosody. § 199, 200. 

sidered as a portion of some of the admissible feet, or of some of them re- 
solved. 

4. In long verses, an iambie syzygy sometimes occurs in the second place, 
and then the third place admits the same varieties as the first. 

An antispastus, with an additional syllable, is called Dochmiac. 

An antispastus, followed by an iambic syzygy, is called Glyconian* 

Two antispasti, with an iambic syzygy, is called Asclepiadean. 
* Antispastic dim. catalectic, is called Pherecratian. 



§ 199. VII. IONIC METRE A MAJORE. Scheme, 
§ 204. VII. 

An Ionic verse admits a trochaic syzygy promiscuously with its proper 
foot. The verse never ends with the proper foot complete, but either with 
the trochaic syzygy or the proper foot incomplete. The varieties of this 
metre are numerous, among which observe the following: 

Var. 1. The second podon is sometimes found in the first place. And 

Var, 2. A molossus ( ) in an even intermediate place with a tro- 
chaic syzygy following. 

Var. 3. The second pceon is occasionally joined to a second or third epitrite, 
so that the two feet together are equal in time to two Ionic feet. This is call- 
ed an Ai/aKAao-t?; the defect in time of the preceding foot being, in this case, 
supplied by the redundant time of the subsequent ; and the verse so dispos- 
ed is called AvaxXdinevos. 

Var. 4. Resolutions of the long syllable into two short ones are allowed 
in all possible varieties. 

If the three remaining paeons, or the second paeon in any place but the 
first, without an AvaxXaoig : — Or, 

If an iambie syzygy or third epitrite — a choriambus, or any of the dis- 
cordant feet of four syllables, be found in the same verse with an Ionic foot, 
the verse is then termed Epi-ionic. 



§ 200. VIII. IONIC METRE A MINORE. Scheme, 
§ 204. VIII. 

An Ionic verse a minore is often entirely composed of its own proper feet 
It admits, however, an iambic syzygy promiscuously, and begins sometimes 
with the third pceon followed by one of the epitrites for an Avax\a?is. 

A molossus sometimes occurs in the beginning of the verse, and also in 
the odd places with an iambic syzygy preceding. 



§ 201, 202. prosody. 285 

In the intermediate places a second or third paeon is prefixed to a second* 
epitrite ; and this construction is called AvaK\acig as before. 

R-esolutions of the long syllables are allowed in this, as in the other Ionic 
metre. 

An Epionic verse a minore is constituted by intermixing with the Ionic 
foot a double trochee, second epitrite, or paeon without an AvaK\a<ris* 

PROSODIAC VERSE. 

When a choriambus precedes or follows an Ionic foot of either kind, the 
name Epionic is suppressed, and the verse called Prosodiacus. And, in 
general, 

This name is applied to a verse consisting of an alternate mixture of cho- 
riambic and Ionic feet, or of their respective representatives. 

N. B. The two species of Ionic are not to be intermixed in the same 

verse. 



§ 201. IX. PHONIC METRE. Scheme, § 204. IX. 

A paeon ic verse requires all the admissible feet to have the same rhythm 
with its proper/oot ; i. e. to consist of five times, or be equal to five short syl- 
lables. 

The first and fourth pceon are mostly used, but not in the same verse. 

The construction of this verse is most perfect when each metre ends with 
the several words of the verse as was before remarked of the anapastic me- 
tre. 4 

To this head may be referred those verses which are called by some au- 
thors Bachiac and Cretic verses. 



§ 202. OF THE C.ESURAL PAUSE. 

Besides the division of the verse into metres and feet, there is another di- 
vision, into two parts only, owing to the natural intermission of the voice in 
reading it, and relevant to the rhythmical effect. This is called the pause, 
which necessarily ends with a word ; and its distance from the beginning is 
generally, though not invariably, determined by the length of the verse. 

Heroic verses and trimeter iambics are esteemed most harmonious when 
the pause falls upon the first syllable of the third foot. This is the penthe- 
mimeral caesura. When it fills upon the first syllable of the fourth, it is 
called the hephthemimeral. In iambic and trochaic tetrameters its place is 
at the end of the second metre. These rules are more observed by the 
Roman than by the Greek poets. In anapaestic verse and paeonic, no place 
is assigned to the pause ; because, since the metres (if rightly constructed) 



286 prosody. § 203, 204. 

m 

end with a word, the effect of a pause will be produced at the end of each 
metre. The same may be observed of the Ionic a minore. 



§ 203. COMPOUND METRES. 

Besides the preceding nine species of metre, the compositions and modi- 
fications of these are very numerous. Of these observe the following : 

L A long syllable is sometimes inserted between the parts of a verse 
consisting of similar metres. 

2. In some species the portions of an admissible foot of four syllables are 
separated by the intermediate metres. 

3. It happens not unfrequently that two species, totally dissimilar, are 
united in the same verse ; which is then denominated Astnartetes ; 

1. Dactyl Tetram. + Troch. Hemihol. 

2. Iambic Penth. + Troch. Hemihol. 

3. Dactyl. Dim. + Troch. Monom. or Logaaedic. 

4. Iambic syzygy + Troch. Syzygy, and vice versa. 
This last is called Periodicus. 

4. When a verse is so irregular as to contain in it some glaring violation 
of the preceding rules, it is called Poltschematistic or anomalous ; thus, 

To this title may be referred, 

1. A verse otherwise iambic, having a spondee in the second or fourth 
glace. 

2. An iambus in a trochaic verse, &c, &c. 
These rules are exemplified in the following tables. 



§ 204. METRICAL TABLES. 

The following table exhibits a scheme of the different feet allowed in each 
kind of Metre ; and the place which they occupy. If a line has the exact 
number of feet in the scheme, it is called Jcatalectic, (A. C), if it want a 
syllable, it is Catalectic ; (C.) ; if it want two syllables or a foot, it is Bra- 
thycalalcctic ; (B. C.) ; if it have one or two syllables more than the scheme, 
it is Hypercatalectic ; (H. C); § 192.3. In Iambic, Trochaic, and Ana- 
poistic verse, each metre consists of two feet and is followed in the table by 
a double line. In all the other kinds of verse, each foot is a metre. 
P. N. is an abbreviation for Proper Name. 



1 



§ 204 



PROSODY. 



287 



I. IAMBIC METRE. § 1-93. 

Monometer Base. Dimeter Jicatalectic, 



1. 2. 



i. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


w _ 


- - 


w - 




ZZ w 








Trimeter- Jicatalectic, 



1. 


o 


3. 


4. 


5. 


6. 


w - 


w _ 


^ — 


*-. _ 


^ — 




— v^ >_• 
>»• ^-^ — 




— 















^ w~ 





P. N. 



II. TROCHAIC METRE. § 194. 

Explanation of the Scheme. 

In this verse each metre is alike. If from the trimeter scheme exhibited be- 
low, the first and second metre be taken away, the remainder is a scheme of 
the Monometer, which is always hypercatalectic or acatalectic. If the first 
is taken away, the remainder will be a scheme of the dimeter ; and if a metre 
be prefixed, it will be a scheme of the tetrameter, which is always catalectic. 

Trimeter Acatalectic 



1. 2. f 3. 4. 5. 6. 



III. ANAPAESTIC METRE. § 195. 

Explanation of the Scheme. 

This scheme is dimeter. The removal of the first metre leaves it Mono- 
meter (which is called an anapaestic base) ; by prefixing one metre, it be- 
comes trimeter ; and by prefixing two it becomes tetrameter, which is 
always catalectic. A catalectic dimeter is also called Parczmiae. 



288 PROSODY. 

Dimeter Acatalectic. 



§ 204. 
Parcamiac or Dim. Cat. 



1. 


2. 


3. 


4. f 




i. 


2. | 


3. 


4. 


zzz 


-_3 


— WW 


7-^3 








— w w 









IV. DACTYLIC METRE. § 196. 

Dimeter. Trimeter. 



A. C. 
H.C. 

Adonic. 



1. 


2. 


1 1 1 1 1 1 

( 1 ( 1 ( 
( ( 1 ( 





— ww 


— 


— ' 



1. 2. 3. 



A.C. 

H.C. 



Tetrameter. 



1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


-ww 


— w w 


— w w 




1 )) 1 

1 ) ! ) 




- — 


N»/ S^ 



iEoLIC. 



Pentameter, 



1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


5. 


_ ^ v^ 










1 ) ) I 
1)1) 


-ww 


_ ^ w 


-^ w 


_ww 


— 71 


_ ._ 


? - ~ 


^ o,— 


t, w — 



A. C. 

iEOLIC. 

Elegiac. 



Hexameter. 


1. | 2. 


3. 


4. 


5. 


6. 












- 








w 




























— — 



























pure. 



> impur 



Heroic 



§ 204. 



PROSODY. 



289 



Logaadics. 
called also Choriambic Dim. Cat. 

Alcaic, (the most common.) 

I Logaaedicsonly. 



-~ w — ~ ~ 

V. CHORIAMBIC METRE. § 197. 

Trimeter, 

Cat. 

pure A. C. seldom occurs. 

impure do. in which also other feet 

are intermixed, as the Paeons and 

Epitrites. 

Monometer is the same as Dact. Dim. Dimeter removes the first Me- 
tre. Tetrameter prefixes a Metre, and is always Catalectic. 

VI. ANTISPASTIC METRE. § 198. 

An Antispastlc metre 

Iambus. Trochee. 



M. I. 


II. 


III. 


w — w — 


_ ^ w — 


w — w _ 



r~- 



pure 



4 — 



i- 



Metres I. 



In the varieties of this verse any of the simple 

■ feet under the Iambus may precede any of those 

under the Trochee. Dimeters. Trimeters, and 

Tetrameters, are formed ,as directed § 198, and 

"are Cat. A. C. and H. C. 

The Dochmiac dimeter and trimeter is formed 
by repeating the Doch. mon. The Doch. also 
sometimes precedes, and sometimes follows, the 
Antispastus. 

Antispastic Varieties. 
II. 



Any form of 
an Antispas- 
tic metre. 



I-- 



Cat. is called Pherecratic. 
A. C. is called Glyconic. 

H. C. is called Sapphic. 

m 

A. C. is called Glyconic Polyschematistic 
25 



290 prosody. § 204. 



VII. IONIC METRE, a majore, § 199 

Trimeter. 
Metres I. II. III. 

pure<! — w I— — >^ — wi 



i 



as above. 



as above and 



all the paeons. 
Dimeter may be formed by joining I. and III. 



r l an ^ } A.C. 



J 



VARIETIES OF THE IONIC A MAJORE. 

H3HZ|3Zwwj _ w — w Alcaic. 

^ — w w \ — w w — , or — v_^ w — < w ~ w%_, \ Prosodiacus, 
Ionic a majore tetram. B. C. is called Sotadic. 

VIH. IONIC METRE, a minore, § 200 

Dimeter. Tetrameter. 

Metres I. II. j s formed by joining a Dim. Cat. to a 

- — C. Dim. A. C. A Molosstis (— ) 

^ ^ w __) in the odd places must always bepre- 

__ f A. C. ceded by an iambic syzygy. 

The Ionic a minore, preceded or followed by a choriambus, is another 
form of Prosodiacus. For the Epi-Ionic, see § 199. 

IX. PHONIC OR CRETIC METRE, § 201. 

A Pmonic metre. Dimeter, Trimeter, & Tetrameter, 

-www w are formed by a repetition of the metre ; a resolution 

^ — ~ "" or w of — into w w is common. 



§ 205, 206. accents. 291 

§ 205. SCANNING. 

To those who are accustomed to the scanning of the Latin poets, the or- 
dinary hexameter and regular systems of the Greek poets will present no 
difficulty. After a little exercise in these, the best praxis is furnished by 
the Choruses in the Dramatic writers, and the odes of Pindar; as almost 
every line furnishes a different kind of verse, and the student is compelled 
to make himself thoroughly acquainted both with the rules of quantity and of 
metre in order to discover it. 

In scanning, for example, the Proodus in the Medea of Euripides, begin- 
ning at the 131st line, after ascertaining the quantity of each syllable, and 
comparing the whole line with the preceding tables, they will be as follows : 



131 


Anapaestic 


Dim. 


Ac. 


132 


Dactylic 


Trim. 


do. 


133 


Anapaestic 


Dim. 


do. 


134 


Dactylic 


Trim. 


H.C. 


135 


Paeonic 


Dim. 


Ac. 


136 


Antispastic 


Dim. 


Ac. 


137 


Dactylic 


Dim. 


Ac. pure. 


133 


Antispastic 


Dim. 


Ac. 



Proceeding in the same way with the second Olympic ode of Pindar, it 
will be as follows : 

1. Periodicus, or circulating dimeter. 

2. Ionic Dimeter Catalectic. 

3. Paeonic Dimeter Hypercatalectic 

4. Choriambic Dimeter Catalectic. 

5. Iambic Dimeter Brachycatalectic. 
G. Dochmiac — and so on of the others. 

Note. In the choruses of the dramatic writers, and the odes of Pindar, 
each line of the antistrophe is the same kind of verse, and often, though not 
always, the same order of syllables with the corresponding line of the pre- 
ceding strophe. 



§ 206. ACCENTS. 

In the proper modulation of speech, it is necessary that one 
syllable in every word should be distinguished by a tone or 
elevation of the voice. On this syllable the accent is marked 
in the Greek language. The elevation of voice does not 
lengthen the time of the syllable ; so that accent and quantity 
are considered by the best critics as perfectly distinct, but 
by no meaus inconsistent with each other. These can be of 
no use to us now, as far as regards the pronunciation of the 



292 accents. §206. 

language, however useful in this respect they may have been 
to those by whom it was spoken. Still, however, the study 
of these is useful in two respects; they serve to distinguish 
between words which are spelled alike but have different sig- 
nifications. This difference was doubtless marked in the lan- 
guage as originally spoken by a different intonation, which, 
by the different marks called accents, it was intended to con- 
vey to the eye. Thus, in English, the words des'ert, and de- 
sert', though spelled with the same letters, differ both in sound 
and meaning ; and this is marked by the accent. So in 
Greek, ouwg and ofitag, spelled with the same letters, differ in 
meaning ; and the difference of the accent would doubtless 
lead the Greek to express this by a difference of tone which is 
now lost. Scapula has given a list of more than four hundred 
words which are thus distinguished. The accents also indi- 
cate, in many cases, the quantity of one or more syllables of a 
word . 

The accents in form are three: the acute ('), grave ( % ), and 
circumflex (~). Strictly speaking, however, there is in reality 
but one accent, the acute, which is placed over a vowel to mark 
the emphatic syllable. When the accent is marked on a diph- 
thong, it is placed over the subjunctive vowel ; as, Saoilsvg. 

The accent is placed over one of the last three syllables 
only, and words are denominated accordingly 

Oxytons, when accented on the final syllable ; as, dsog. 
Paroxytons, when accented on the penult ; as, tivOgunov. 
Proparoxytons, when accented on the antepenult; as, #?- 
Ogiorcog. 

The two last kinds are called barytons, because the final syl- 
lable is not accented ; for every syllable that is not accented, 
is called grave (Gaovg) ; but the grave accent is never marked, 
as such, upon a syllable. 

In the structure of a sentence, when any oxyton is followed 
by another word in continued discourse, the grave is used in- 
stead of the acute ; as, Oebg t^ump : but the word is still consi- 
dered an oxyton. 

When two syllables, the first of which is accented, are con- 
tracted into one, the circumflex is used to denote that an acute 
or accented syllable, and a grave or unaccented, are united ; 
as, qptta'o*, as if, (pdio). yclw ; (piUoi^i, qnkolfM, Hence, if there 
be no accent on the first of the syllables to be contracted, there 
will be no circumflex on the contraction ; thus, cpiXeolpriv, <p*- 

lolf47]V. 



§207. accents. 293 

It is evident, also, that as the accent must be upon one oi 
the last three syllables, the circumflex must be upon one of the 
last two; and words are denominated accordingly. 

Perispomenons, when the last syllable is (Hrcumflexed ; as, 

cpilfb for (pde(x). 
Properispomenons, when the penult is circumflexed ; as, 

q)iXov[iev for (pileofisv. 

N. B. Of many words, both the uncontracted and contract- 
ed forms are in use ; but of others, the contracted form only 
remains, and we must conjecture from analogy what the un- 
contracted was ; as, %<xq%ov, ty/ov ; eov, ovv. This reasoning 
fro in, analogy, however, proceeds on the assumption that all 
syllables having the circumflex were originally two, now unit- 
ed by contraction. Whether this was so or not, cannot be 
satisfactorily ascertained ; nor, if it could, would the know- 
ledge be of much value, as the rules for the accentuation of 
words would still continue the same. 



§ 207. PLACE OF THE ACCENT IN THE NOMI- 
NATIVE, &c. 

No rule can be given for ascertaining the proper place of 
the accent in the nominative of nouns and adjectives ; this is 
best learned from practice and the use of a good Lexicon. 
The following observations, however, may be of use : 

1. The articles, pronouns, and prepositions, have the place 
of the accent marked in their inflexion in the grammar. 

2. In verbs, it is thrown as far back as possible, except e ty/i 
and (pr L ul. 

*3. The following have the acute accent .on the last syllable, 
and are therefore oxytons : viz. 

1. All monosyllables which are not contracted ; as,^e/^>, o; 
When they have suffered contraction, they take the circumflex ; 
as, yr\< (/^a), <P®Sj (<p&og). So also at, vvv, oi)p, vg, dgvg,'(Livg 
rocvg, ovg, nalg, nvg, most or all of which are contractions. 

2. All nouns in -ev$ ; as, fiuadevg. 

3. All verbals in -Tyg ; as, /agaxi^g. 

4. Yerbals in -t???; as, ^afljynjs; but those from verbs in 
-,<u, on the penult ; as, 6iTr]g. 

5. Yerbals in -fir] and -pog, (from the perfect passive) ; as, 
yqau[jLr\^ CFTtuo/uog. 

25* 



294 accents. § 207. 

6. Verbals in -to;, from the 3d singular perfect passive ; as, 
Toir/Ttig; except some compounds; as, tinodeixrog. 

7. Verbals in -?/ and -a from the 2 perf. active; as, orol^ 

8. Diminutives, patronymics, and other derivative nouns in 
-ig : as, XFQuulg, fiaoillg. 

9. Compounds of-notioi, ctyo), qr£0&>, oloog, tqyov ; as, irmda- 
yuyog, dicccpoqa, nvlovgog, o/nftoLfuoeQyog, (but 7raoa: and 7Tfo£ throw 
back the accent; as, neoLegyog.) 

10. Adjectives in -?/g not contracted; as, ulj]0r[g. 

11. Compound adjectives in-^c; as, erignu-rfc ; except com- 
pounds of r(dog and uoxe'co; as, xaxor\0rjg, noduoxijg. 

12. Adjectives in -uc, -eice, -u; as, ?/(%£, ffiela t ^<%. 

13. Adjectives in -£>0£ ; as. ala/gog. 

14. Adjectives in -txog, from verbals in -to?; as, noirjTixdg 
from noiTjTdg. 

15. The adverbial terminations -t and -doV ; as, cifoe/, 6/lio 
Ovfiudov. 

Accent on the Penult. 

4. The following have the accent on the penult: 

1. Diminutives in -lonog, -dog, -iwv ; as, vBavtaxog, naidlo-- 
nrj y vavrlXeg, /Lfotglwv. 

2. Nouns in -eioi>, denoting a place ; as, Avxelov. 

3. Nouns in -vrrj; as, dixouoovvrj. 

4. Nouns in -*«, if derived from Adjectives in -og ; as, cptlla. 
If derived from substantives, the accent varies ; as, aTgan& 
from oTouTog. 

5. Nouns in -eia derived from verbs in -emu; as, fiaoilsla 
from fiuotlevui. 

6. Almost all nouns denoting national relation ; as, ' PuiiaTog. 

7. Verbals in -two ; as, (Stjiojo, xrrjrojo. 

8. Adjectives in eto -eloou -ev ; as, xa^leig 

9. Adjectives in -orfrjg; as, lidwdrjg. 

10. Verbal adjectives in -so; ; as, yganriog. 

11. Comparatives in -tco*>; as, fielriwv. 

12. Adverbs of quantity in -umg; as, TQio&xig, nolX&xig. 

13. Adverbs in .o^v; as, ovlUfidrjv. 






§ 208, 209. accents. 295 

- Composition. 

*5. Compound words in many instances, especially in ad- 
verbs, retain the accent on the syllable where it stood in the 
simple; as, uvrocpi, o-voavodsv. In the following cases, how- 
ever, the accent is drawn back to the antepenult. 

1. Words compounded of particles, «, ev, dvg, <$*, opo, aorv^ 
dvil, neqi, naoa, vno, &c, ; as, amuxog from niOTog, d(ipv%og 
from y>u/*j. 

2. Words compounded of two adjectives ; as, cpdocroyog ; of 
two substantives ; as, vavxlrjgog ; of adjectives and substan- 
tives; as, (pdoaTogyog. 



§ 20S. GENERAL RULES. 

I. 

If the final syllable is long, the penult has the acute accent; 
thus, d-vOqihrcov, do6o~a 9 (dual,) ocpswg, nrjle'tadsoi), TV7iTG},TV7tTea0a). 

Obs. The Attic terminations -ecov and -eojg, in the 2d and 
3d declensions, and the Ionic -em in the first, are considered 
as forming* one syllable ; as, av6ysibv, nolsibg. 

II. 

..If the final syllable be short, then 

1. In dissyllables the penult, if short, has the acute accent; 
as, TvriTe; if long, with the final syllable short, the circumflex; 
as, x e ^Q a > dovoa, (sing.) 

2 In polysyllables the antepenult has the acute ; thus, av. 
dgojnog, dip 6 o'WTio £, Tvmofiev, rvmo^iav, 

Obs. 1. The diphthongs oi and on final, and syllables long 
Hy position only, are considered short in accentuation; thus, 
atjA«|, uvlaxog. 

Obs. 2. These rules apply to the inflexions of nouns, and to 
all the parts of verbs except as in the following, 



§ 209. SPECIAL RULES. 

I. IN THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

■ 1. The first declension has the circumflex on the ultimate of 
the genitive plural; thus, ^ouaco^ from [*ovo~a. 



296 accents. § 209. 

Exc. The feminine of baryton adjectives in ~og follows the 
first general rule; dyluv from uytog, (not ayiwv;) ££t>wv, from 
Eivog ; also, ^tjcjtw//, ;^.ou*'G)j>, lirjulwv. 

2. Oxytons of the /irsi and second declensions, circumflect 
the last syllable in the genitive and dative ; thus, t*^, t^tjc, 
r/w^, nui^p, Tijucbi' ; kcxAo£ 5 ^«Ao£i ; xwAoi, xaAotc. 

3. In the third declension the acute accent on the last sylla- 
ble of the nominative is transferred to the penult in the oblique 
cases; thus, acoxr^, ooottjoo?, (jcott^co*', (R. I. ;) noa ty, 7r« Tc'^og ; 

£xc. 1. The final syllable of vocatives in rov and -ot change 
the acute into the circumflex ; as, Saodevg, Sacrdev ; j*Aco0g), 
xhjdoT. 

Exc. 2. Mt\tt]q and 6vydjr]o, though barytons, accent the 
penult ; as, /urjiegog. 

Exc. 3. Genitives and datives of two syllables, have the 
circumflex on the final syllable long, and the acute on the final 
syllable short; as, /urjvbg, fiyvl, jutjvoIv, fiir]p(bi>, firj(rl,dv(hv 9 dvol. 
But rig and participles follow the general rule; as, ilvwv, Otviog, 
ovoi ; also, dadwv, d/ud)ujv, #aW, xgarwr, nccldu)v, Tq(x)ujp, b'vziov, 
cp&xwv, (of lights,) 7i<xrT(Dv, naoi. 

Also syncopated nouns and yvvr\ % except the dat. pi. ; as, 
naigbg, tkxtqwv, naTQUOi ; yvvaixog. 

Also, a short vowel of the genitive from a long vowel in the 
nominative, throws back the accent in the vocative ; thus, 
aprjQ, avtoog, (xveq ; evdaluwv, etidaLuovog, exjdaifior. Except 
when thepenult is long not by position; as, Max^ov, Sagn^dov. 

II. IN VERBS. 

1. Monosyllables, being long, are circumflexed ; as, &, tig, 
cpr\g, Gr\ for 16 rj. 

2. A long syllable after the characteristic is circumflexed, 

1st. In the active and middle voices, in the first future of 
liquid verbs; and in the second future of all verbs. 

2d. In the passive voice, in the subjunctive of the aorists, 
and in the subjunctive of the present of verbs in fit; 
thus, OTtFow, onegeXg, aneqelv, oneguv, OTTegov/uoa — Tvnib, 
Tvnovuev, ivnolpi, Tvnov/uou — Tvcp0(b — jvnr\g — tlOw — 

Exc. Except when the last syllable ends in -rjp ; as, ivmoi- 
ttjv, (see 1st gen. rule). 



§ 210r ACCENTS. 297 

3. The third person of the optative in -ch and -a* has the 
acute accent on the penult ; as, reTvcpoi, ageaai. 

Except in the futures mentioned rule 2d. 

4. The imperatives elde, sine, sty£ 9 Ids, la6e, have the acute 
accent on the final syllable. 

But the imperative circumflects the last syllable in the 2d 
pers. sing, in the 2d aorist middle ; thus, xvnov. Except y£- 
vov, jganou, sveyxou. 

5. The infinitive of the second aorist active circumflects the 
final syllable; thus, tvtzsXv, viz. as if contracted from tutt£- 
fispai, Tvneusv, TVTreeV) ivnelv. * 

The infinitive of the first aorist active — of the second aorist 
middle — of both aorists passive — of all the perfects — and of 
the active voice of verbs in -/ul, have the accent on the penult ; 
viz. the circumflex on the long penult, and the acute on the 
short; thus, /olvat,, el&oai, axovcrat — zvnhodai — Tvq)0r\vai, tvtz- 
r\vai — iSTvcperat, TSivnevcu, TervcpOui, 7Tecpilr\o6ai — laiavai. 

6. The participles of ihe second aorist active, of the pres- 
ent active of verbs in -/«*. and all ending in -cog or -etg, have 
the acute accent on the final syllable; thus, Tvmbv, I aj&g, didotig, 
TSTvcpcbg, jvcpdelg. 

The participles of the perfect passive have the acute accent 
on the penult; as, TSTv/uuevog. 

Except when abbreviated ; as, deypevog for dedsyixevog. 

7. Etui I am, and (pypl, I say, have the acute accent on the 
final syllable of the indicative, (except the 2d sing.) ; thus, ia- 
tJ, cpaul, 

Obs. When evil is emphatical, or forms the copula between 
the subject and its predicate, it throws back the accent ; thus, 
avOgconog eon ^coop, man is an animal; eon avdgconog il <5' eon % 
This is commonly though improperly, classed under enclitics. 



§ 210. IN CONSTRUCTION. 

1. Words accented on the last syllable, when that is lost by 
apostrophe, throw the accent back; as, dewa. — delv* enrj. * 

Exc. 1. alia and the prepositions are excepted, which lose 
their accent. 

Exc. 2. Prepositions placed after their cases (£*>& and dia 
excepted) throw back the accent ; thus, negl — yv%r{g negi. 



298 accents. § 211, 212. 

§ 211. PROCLITICS OR ATONICS. 

The following ten words, when written by themselves or before another 
word, hpve no accent, but. seem to rest upon and form, as it were, part of 
the word following ; viz. the articles, b, >7, of, al ; the prepositions iv, eig, {is), 
ex, e(] the conjunctions ei, o>? ; and the negative adverb ov : (ovk, ov%.) 

But these words have the accent when it is thrown back on them from an 
enclitic following ; as, eiys ; in the -end of a sentence; as, mog yap oi>, why 
not ? after the word on which they rest : as, Beds &s, like a god; KdK&v e£ in 
consequence of evils. Also the article, used as a personal pronoun, often 
has the accent ; as, S yap ijX0e. 



§ 212. ENCLITICS. 

Enclitics (from lyfcXu/w) are so denominated, because, like the Latin que, 
they lean or rest their accent upon the preceding word as forming a part of 
it, and have no emphasis on themselves. They are 

1. IVlou, pev, pol, pi, — aov, asv, aol, <re, — ov, ot, 2, — plv f v\v, a<fiv, — atycol, <y<pl, 
o-^fac, o<piai, cpiajv, and the indefinite ric, in all cases and dialects. 

2. Ei>i and (prjpl in the indicative present, except in the 2d person sing. 

3. TLfj, Troi), 7ro>, ttcoc, ttoQlv, ttotI, not interrogative. 

4. Yl, T£, KS, KM, VVV, 7T£p, f>a, TOl. 

RULES. 

I. Enclitics throw back their accent on the last syllable of the preceding 
word when its antepenult has the acute accent, or its penult, the circumflex ; 

as, avOpcorros ion — rfKBi poi, ooypd pov, ov rt. 

Note. In this case the acute accent is always used, though the enclitic 
may have a circumflex. 

Note 2. When the preceding word ends in a double consonant, and will 
not easily coalesce with the enclitic following, the accent remains unchang- 
ed ; as, bprj\it; pov. ■ 

II. If the preceding word has any accent on the final syllable or the acute 
accent on the penult, the monosyllable enclitic loses its accent ; as, dya-xag 
fie j dvnp rig; rvirru cc. But if the preceding word has the acute accent 
on the penult, or the circumflex on the final syllable, the dissyllable 
retains its accent ; as, \6yos Tivog ; 'Eop^g eari, not eon ; but loses it 
when the final syllable preceding has the acute ; as, xa\6g tan not tnri. 

Obs. The principle of these rules is, that no two successive syllables in 
the same word can be accented ; and that a circumflexed syllable is equiv 
alent to one acuted, followed by another unaccented. 

III. If several enclitics follow each other, the last only is without the ac- 
cent, Ihe accent of each being thrown back on the word which precedes it; 
as, ei — et Tig nva tyw'i pot. . 

rV. The eneli ic pronouns retain their accent after prepositions, and after 
Ivzxa and /? ; as, cid oi. 

V. All the enclitics retain their accent when they are emphatic, and when 
they begin a clause. 

V. 'E«m accents its first syllable when it begins a sentence or is emphati- 
cal, or follows dXX', el, ovk, wc or tovt' ; as, ovk eon. 



§^ 213, 214 TERMINATIONS. 299 



APPENDIX. 

§213. THE TERMINATIONS OF. THE VERB. 

[The following contains a more extended view of the terminations of 
the verb than is presented § 91.] » 

The terminations are added immediately to the Tense-root, 
and consist of two parts : 1st, .he vowel or diphthong which 
indicates the mood, and hence denominated the mood-vowel ; 
and 2d, the final letters on personal-endings, which indicate the 
number and person. 

§ 214. I. OF THE MOOD-VOWELS. 

The mood-vowels of the indicative are either short or doubt- 
ful. (Except in the plup. active) ; — of the subjunctive always 
long ; — of the optative always a diphthong. More particularly, 

1. MOOD VOWELS IN THE ACTIVE VOICE. 

1. In the ^Indicative, the mood-vowels in the pres. imperf. 
fut. and 2 aor. are, in the singular o, s, ?, — in the dual e, s, in 
plur. o, By o. — In the 1 aor. and 1 and 2 perf. «, (except in the 
3d sing. s,) and in the 1 and 2 pluperf. u. 

2. In the Subjunctive the mood-vowels in all the tenses are 
w in the first pers. sing, and in the first and third person pi. ; 
and tj in all the rest. 

3. In the Optative, the mood- vowels are oi, — in the 1 aor. ai. 

4. In the Imperative, the mood-vowels are s. But in the 1 
aor. 2d sing, o, — in the other persons, and numbers a. 

5. In the Infinitive, the mood-vowel is s : — in the 1 aor. a. 

6. In the Participles the vowels are o: — 1 aor. a. 

2. MOOD-VOWELS IN THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 

In the middle and the passive voice, the mood-vowels are 
the same as in the corresponding moods and tenses in the 
active voice : Except as follows. — 

Exc. 1. The first person dual — wanting in the active voice 
— has the same mood- vowels as the plural, in all the moods 
in the middle and passive. 

Exc. 2. The indicative and imperative of the 1 aor. mid. 
have the mood-vowel a throughout. 

Note. The mood-vowels in each person and number, as also in the 
infinitive and participles, will be distinctly seen in the following inflec- 
tions § 216 ; and in the tables of terminations § 92. 



300 



TERMINATIONS. 



§ 215 



§ 215. II. OF THE FINAL LETTERS. 

The final letters or personal-endings, which serve to distin- 
guish the numbers and persons, and which with the mood- 
vowels form the termination, are as follows. — 

I. ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Primary tenses (§77. Obs. 3.) 

1 2 3 

Sing, -o Opt. fit -ig 
Dual. -tov 

Plur, 



-fXSV 



I 

TOV 

VTGl 



Secondary tenses (§ 77. Obs. 3.) 

1 2 3 
-v -g — 

-TOV 'TTjV 

-fiev -tb -Vj plup. -oav. Opt. -sv. 



Exc. The 1 and 2 perf. Indicative, in the singular, instead of 
-o 3 -ig, -i, have — , -g, — : and the 1 aor. instead of -v, -g, — , has 



IMPERATIVE. 
2 3 

Sing. — -to 
Dual, -tov -t(ov 
Plur. -T€ -Twvotv 



INFINITIVE. 

Pres. -iv : Perf and Plup. -vai : 1 Aor. -i. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. etc. -ov -vtgvs. -v 
1 Aor. -vt£ -vTcra -v 



II. MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICES. 



INDICATIVE. 
Primary tenses. 

12 3 1 

Sing, -pai -crab -tou -firjv 

Dual, -fie&ov -ofrov -o&ov -ps&ov 

Plur. -/xs&a -a&s -vtoli -jxs&a 

IMPERATIVE. 

2 3 

Sing. -o(w -ad-a) 

Dual, -v&ov -a&ov 

Plur. -o#£ -a&coaav 



Secondary tenses. 
2 3 



-(70 
-O&OV 

-o&e 

INFINITIVE. 



-TO 

-O&ljV 

-VTO 



PARTICIPLES. 

-fitvog -fisvn -fisvov 



Obs. 1. The subjunctive mood takes the final letters of the 
primary tenses, — and the optative, those of the secondary. 

Exc. In the optative, active voice, the final letters of the 
1st pers. sing, are -fiu — of the 3d pers. pi. -sv. 

Obs. 2. The imperative of the 1 aor. active has the final 
letter v, — middle, i. 






§216 



TERMINATIONS. 



301 



Obs. 3. The final letters of the 2 sing., middle and passive, 
usually drop g after the mood-vowel, and the remaining vowels 
are contracted into */, Attic si, in the primary tenses ; and 
into ov in the secondary, § 101, 8. The optative only drops g. 



§ 216. INFLECTION OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. 

•1. INDICATIVE MOOD. 

The terminations of the indicative mood are formed by 
prefixing the mood-vowels to the primary final letters in the 
primary tenses ; and to the secondary in the secondary 
tenses ; § 77, Obs. 3. 

Primary tenses. — Pres. and Put. 



I 



-vowels and fin. 


letters divided. 


The 


same combined. 




1 


2 


3 


I 


2 


3 


Sing. 


0-0 


s-ig 


S-l 


-&} 


-ng 


-St 


Dual. 




8-X0V 


S-XOV 




-SXOV 


-STOP 


Plur. 


O-jlSV 


8-XS 


O-VTCFl 

1 and 


-OflSV 

2 Perfect. 


-SXS 


-ovvi, § 6. 18. 


Sing. 


#- 


<x-g 


e- 


-# 


-<xg 


-8 


Dual. 




a-xov 


Ct-TOV 




-axov 


-axov 


Plur. 


a-fisv 


VL-XS 


a-VTGl 


-CtfASV 


-CITS 


-aai, § 6. 18. 



Obs. In the first person o-o, and w-o are combined (not con- 
tracted) into w. 

Secondary tenses. — Imperf. and 2 Aor. 



•vowels and fin 

1 


letters divided. 
2 3 




The 
1 


same combined. 
2 3 


Sing. 


o-v 


s*g 


S- 




-ov 


-sg 


-s 


Dual. 




S-XOV 


S-X7}V 






-SXOV 


-ix^v 


Plur. 


O-flSV 


S-JS 


O-V 




-OflSP 


-8X8 


-ov 








1 Aorist. 








Sing. 


a- 


a-g 


8- 




-a 


-ag 


-8 


Dual. 




a-xov 


d-xrjv 






-axov 


-dxrjv 


Plur. 


a-fisv 


a-xs 


a-v 




-apsv 


-axe 


-CIV 








1 and 2 Pluperfect. 






Sing. 


SL-V 


si-g 


SL- 




-siv 


-sig 


-SI 


Dual. 




Sl-XOV 


sl-xyv 






-sixov 


-slxrjv 


Plur. 


Sl-USV 


Sl-XS 


si-aav 




-sius\ 


V -SIXS 


-swav 



302 



TERMINATIONS. 
2. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



§216! 



The terminations of the subjunctive mood, through all the 
tenses, are formed by prefixing its mood-vowels to the final 
letters of the 'primary tenses ; thus, 



M-vowels and fin. letters divided. 
1 2 3 

Sing, (o-o 7}-ig ij-i 

Dual. Tj-TOV 7J-TOV 

Flur. w-pev ijts co-vtvi 



The same combined. 
12 3 

-w -7}g -rj 

-TjTOV -TfflOV 
-fdjlBV -TfCB -WGl § 6. 18. 



3. OPTATIVE MOOD. 

The terminations of the optative mood, through all the 
tenses, are formed by prefixing its mood-vowels to the final 
letters of the secondary tenses. 



M-vowels and fin. letters divided. 
1 2 3 

Sing, oi-fit oi-g oi- 

Dual. OL-TOV Ol-T7\V 

Plur. oi-fisv oi-tb oi-bv 



The same combined. 

12 3 

-(Hfib -oig -oi 

-oitov -ohtjr 
-oi[isv -oitb -oisy 



Exc. — 1 Aorist. 
Sing, eu-pt ou-g ou- 
Dual. ai-Tov <xI-tt)v 

Plur. ou-ubv ai-Ts cu-sv 



-dipt, -aig -cu 

-outov -OLlTTpr 
-OtlflBV -OUTS -OllBV 



4. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



The terminations of the imperative in all the tenses, are 
made by prefixing the mood- vowels to the final letters ; thus, 



M-vowels and fin. letters divided. 

2 3 

Sing, s- i-j(o 
Dual, b-tov b-twv 
Plur. b-tb e-rwaoiv and 6-vtojv 



The same combined. 
2 3 

-8 -BT(0 

-STOP -STOW 

-btb -sTwootr and -oVxcwf 



1 Aorist. 



Sing. 


o-v 


or-TW 


Dual. 


a-xov 


a-T(ov 


Plur. 


a-TB 


ot-Twaotv 



-OV -«T0) 

~ OITOV -VLTOW 

-oitb -moaaotv 






§ 217. TERMINATIONS. 303 

5. INFINITIVE. 

M-vowels and fin. letters divided. The same combined. 
e-iv, perf. i-vai, 1 aor. a-i -siv, perf. -ivcci, 1 aor. -a*. 

6. PARTICIPLES. 

M-vowels and fin. letters divided. The same combined. 
M. F. N. M. F. N. 

O'OVj o-VTcra, o-v. -tav, -ovaa, -ov. 

Excep. Terminations of the perfect -00s, -ma, -og :— of the 
1 aor. -ag, -aaa, -av. 

6 217. INFLECTION OF THE MIDDLE AND 
PASSIVE VOICES. 

The terminations of all the tenses and moods in the middle, 
and in the passive voice, are made by prefixing their respective 
mood-vowels to the final letters in the same manner as in the 
corresponding tenses of the active voice. 

JExc. 1. The 1st and 2d aorists passive have the termina- 
tions of the second conjugation. 

Exc. 2. The perfect and pluperfect passive have no mood- 
vowels; but annex the final letters (which in this case are 
the termination), immediately to the root. § 101, 10. 



304 



PARADIGM OF 



§218. 



§ 218. CONTRACT VERBS. ACTIVE. 



Present. 


TljLl- 


qiik- 


dr}U 




S. 


dco 


-co 


eco 


-co 


6co 


-co 




D. 


dag 
dec 


-<*S 
-5 


eeis 
iei 


-eis 
-eX 


Sets 
6ei 


-oXs 

•oX 


Ind. 




derov 


-drov 


eerov 


-eXrov 


derov 


-ovrov 






derov 


-drov 


eerov 


-eXrov 


derov 


-ovrov 




P. 


aofxev 
dere 


-copev 
-are 


eofxev 
eere 


-ovfxev 
-eXre 


oofiev 
6 ere 


-ovfjtev 
-ovre 






aovat 


-coat 


eoveri 


-ovai 


OOVLTl 


-ovai 




S. 


doi 


-co 


eco 


-co 


00) 


-co 




D. 


dys 


-a 


sr)S 


'US 

'V 




-ois 

-01 


Subj. 




arjrov 


-drov 


erjrov 


-rjrov 


orjrov 


-corov 






arjrov 


•arov 


erjrov 


-t)tov 


orjrov 


•corov 




P. 


acopev 
drjTE 


-COfiCV 

-are 


eiopev 


-cofxev 


dcofxev 


-coftev 






acoai 


-coat 


e coa i 


-coat 


dcoai 


-coai 




S. 
D. 


doifJLL 

dots 
doi 


-CpfXl 

-tZg 
-co 


eoifii 
eots 
to l 


-oXjxi 

-oXs 

-oX 


doi/xi 
oo is 
dot 


-oipt 

-ois 
-oX 


Opt, 




doiTOV 


-corov 


eoirov 


-oirov 


ooirov 


•oiruv 




P. 


aolrrjv 
doifxev 
doire 
doiev 


-corrjv 
-cofxev 
-core 
-cZev 


eoirrjv 
eotfxev 
to ire 
eoiev 


-oirrjv 
-oXpev 
-oXrs 
•oXev 


ooirr\v 
doijiev 
6o ire 
doiev 


-oirrjv 
-oXpev 
-oXrs 
-oXev 




S. 


ae 


-a 


ee 


-ei 


oe 


-ov 






aerco 


-arco 


eerto 


-lirco 


oero) 


-ovrco 




D. 


derov 


-drov 


eerov 


-eXrov 


derov 


-ovrov 


Imp. 


P. 


alrcov 
dere 


•drcov 
•are 


eircov 
eere 


-eircov 
-eXre 


oercov 
dere 


-ovrcov 

-ovre 






aercoaav 


-arcoaav 


eercoaav -eircoaav 


oercoaav -ovrcoaav 


Inf. 




deiv 


-av 


eeiv 


-eiv 


6eiv 


•ovv 


Part. 


M. 
F. 

N. 


dcov 

dovaa 

dov 


-cov 

-co era 
-cov 


etov 

rovaa 
eov 


-cov 

-ovaa 

-ovv 


dcov 

dovaa 

dov 


•cov 
-ovaa 

'OVV 


Impci 


/• 


£Tl/U 




iepd- 


ZdrjX- 




S. 


aov 


-cov 


eov 


-ovv 


oov 


-OVV 






acs 


-as 


ees 


•eis 


oes 


-ovs ■ 




D. 


ae 


-a 


ee 


-£« 


oe 


•ov 


Ind. 




derov 


-drov 


ierov 


-eXrov 


derov 


-ovrov 




P. 


aernv 
dofxev 
acre 


-drrjv 
-cofxev 
-are 


eerr\v 
io/jcev 
tere 


-eirriv 

-ov/jtev 
-eXre 


oerrjv 
dofxev 
dere 


-oirifv 

-ovftev 

-OVTS 






aov 


-Q)V 


eov 


-ovv 


oov 


•ow 



§ 218. 



CONTRACT VERBS. 



305 



CONTRACT VERBS. MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 



Tifl- 


CplX- 


drjl- 


dojjiat 


-wpat. 


iopai 


-ovuai 


oofxai 


-ovpai 


op 


-a 


W 


~V 


°y 


-oX 


derat 


-fir at 


israi 


-eXrat 


osrat 


-ovrai 


aofxeOou 


-cofxsQov 


EOfxeQov 


-ovfxeOuv 


oSjaeQov 


-ovfxedov 


dsaBov 


-aaQov 


ieaQov 


-eXaQov 


oeaQov 


-ovaQov 


&£<r9ou 


-fiaQov 


isaQov 


-eXaQov 


6eoQov 


-ovaOov 


aofxedai 


-cJfiEQa 


eo/ieQa 


-ovfieQa 


odfxsQa 


-ovfxeQa 


deaQs 


-fiaQs 


ieaQe 


-eXade 


deaQe 


-ovaQs 


dovrai 


-cjvrai 


iovrai 


-ovvrai 


oovrai 


-ovvrai 


do)fjiat 


-copai 


ecojjLai 


-co/xai 


owjjai 


-cofxai 


«!? 


-a 


£ V 


~y 


6 n 


-01 


drjrai 


-firai 


irjrai 


-rjrai 


orjrai 


-<2rai 


a^jieQov 


'(ajxtBov 


Eu>HeQov 


-cofieQov 


ooofieQov 


-(oixedov 


drjaQov 


-aaQov 


irjaQov 


-rjadov 


drjaQov 


-StaQov 


drjadov 


* -aaQov 


irjaQov 


-rjaOov 


6r\aQov 


-cJaQov 


aujfjieda 


-<6jjieQa 


EcjfxsQa 


-ai[xeQa 


owfieQa 


-(OjxsQct 


drjade 


-fiaQs 


irjaQs 


-fjoQe 


orjaQe 


-oUaQe 


doivTdi 


-uvrai 


iuivrai 


•CSvrai 


ocovrai 


-wvrai 


aoi\ir\v 


-wurjv 


eoijxriv 


-oifxrfv 


OOlfJLTJV 


-OlfXTJV 


doio 


-COO 


£010 


-010 


6010 


-010 


doiro 


-(pro 


ioiro 


-oito 


OOITO 


-OITO 


aoLjjtedov 


-cofisQov 


eoljxeQov 


-oipeOov • 


ooifxsQov 


-otpeOov 


doiaQov 


-daQov 


eoioQov 


-oXaQov 


SoiaQov 


-oXodov 


aoioBrjv 


-coaQrjv 


£0iaQr)V 


-otaQrjv 


ooiaQrjv 


-oiaQrjv 


aoi/xeOa 


• cppEQa 


EoifxeQa 


-oifieQa 


OOLfXEda 


-oiLieda 


doiads 


-coaQs 


eoi ode 


-oToQe 


ooiaQe 


-oXaQe 


doivro 


-coj/ro 


eoivro 


-OIVTO 


OOIVTO 


-oXvto 


dov 


-co 


eov 


-ov 


00 V 


-ov 


aiffdo) 


-daQco 


eiaQco 


-eiaQa) 


oiaQco 


* -ovaQoy 


dsoQov 


-aaQov 


ieaQov 


-eXoQov 


osoQov 


-ovaQov 


aeadcjv 


-daQcov 


eeaOoiv 


-siaQcov 


oiaQoiv 


-ovaQoiv 


deads 


-dads 


isaQs 


-eXoQe 


osaQs 


-ovaQe 


aiaQoaav 


-aaQo>aav 


eeaQaiaav 


-eiaQwaav 


oiaQoyaav -ovoQooaav 


dsadai 


-fiaOai 


e&aQai 


-eiaQat 


6&oQai 


-ovaQat 


a6fx£vos 


-Mfxevos 


£0[jievo$ 


-ovjxevos 


oo/iEvog 


-ovpevos 


ao]iivr\ 


-oyfiivri 


eo\\ivr\ 


-ovfxevr) 


oofiivr] 


-ovfiivrj 


aofjLCVov 


-COfiEVOV 


eofjievov 


-ovfxevov 


o6fievov 


-OVflEVOV 


It ia- 


ecpil- 


$8tj%- 


aourjv 


-(OfiTJV 


e6pir}v 


-ovfxrjv 


o6[xr)v 


-ovfxriv 


dov 


-6i 


eov 


-ov 


6ov 


-ov 


aero 


-S.TO 


isro 


-eXto 


6ero 


-OVTO 


adjjiF.Oov 


-coueQov 


eojxeQov 


-ovueQov 
•eiaQov 


oopeOov 


-ovfxsOop 


dsaQov 


-aaQov 


ieaQov 


6eaQov 


-ovaQov 


aiaQrjv 


-daQrjv 


eiaQrjv 


-EiaQrjv 


oiaQrjv 


-ovaQr\v 


aSjieda 


-Wfjte&a 


e6jieQa 


-ov/xEQa 


o6jj.eda 


-ovpeQa 


aerie 


-fiaBe 


ieoQe 


-sXaQe 


6eo6e 


-ovaQ* 


&3VTO 


-&VTO 


iovro 


-oUvro 


6ovto 


-OVVTO 



306 ANALYSIS AND TRANSLATION. § 219 

§ 219. ANALYSIS AND TRANSLATION. 

[Modified from Mons. De Sacy's Principles of General Grammar.] 

Every person, in expressing his ideas by speaking or writing, performs 
the operation of composition, or constructing sentences out of the simple 
elements that compose them. The reverse of this, or the reducing of sen- 
tences into their simple elements, is Analysis. Now, as in constructing 
sentences, due regard must be paid to certain established rules of speech 
called the rules of syntax, so we must be guided by the same rules in ana- 
lyzing them. 

In translating from one language into another, both operations are car- 
ried on at the same time. The sentence to be translated is analyzed, and 
then* combined into a new sentence in the translation. It is obvious, there- 
fore, that without correct analysis there can be no correct translation, and 
to these a knowledge of the rules of construction in both languages is in- 
dispensable. 

Analysis. 

The constituent parts of simple and compound sentences have already 
been mentioned, § 126., and need not be here repeated. But for the further 
illustration of the subject, it may be noticed that simple sentences may be 
combined into a compound sentence in four different ways. 1. The subject 
may be compound and the predicate simple, but common to both parts of 
the subject ; as, " time and tide wait for no man," i. e. " time waits for no 
man," " tide waits for no man." 2. The subject may be simple and the 
predicate compound ; as, " time is fleeting, and should be diligently im- 
proved ;" i. e. " time is fleeting;" " time should be diligently improved." 
3. Both the subject and the predicate may be compound, and then the com- 
pound sentence will contain as many simple sentences as there are distinct 
ideas in both: as, "luxurious living and high pleasures produce languor 
and satiety;" i. e. "luxurious living produces languor," " luxurious living 
produces satiety;" "high living produces languor," " high living produces 
satiety." 4. Simple sentences consisting of separate subjects and separate 
predicates may be conjunctively united into one compound sentence ; as, 
" the ox knoweth his owner, and the ass (knoweth) his master's crib, but 
Israel doth not know, my people do not consider." 

Note. It must be noticed, however, that two or more nouns combined, 
are to be regarded as one subject, when the predicate can be affirmed of 
them only as combined, and not separately ; thus, " three and two make 
five;" — "virtue and vice are opposite qualities," — "He and I are of the 
same age;" are all simple propositions, having each but one subject and 
one predicate — though the predicate consists of two nouns. 

2. In every simple proposition we must distinguish between the Gram- 
matical subject and predicate, and the Logical subject and predicate. The 
Grammatical subject is the simple* name or thing spoken of, without, or 
separated from all modifying words or clauses. The Logical subject is the 
same word in connexion with all qualifying or restricting expressions which 
go to make up the full idea of the thing spoken of. The Grammatical pre- 
dicate is the word containing the simple affirmation made respecting the 



§ 219. ANALYSIS AND TRANSLATION. 307 

subject ; the Logical is that word combined with all those that modify it in 
any way. Thus, in the sentence — " An inordinate desire of admiration 
often produces a contemptible levity of deportment,'' — the Grammatical 
subject is li desire" the grammatical predicate is "produces." The Logical 
subject is, " An inordinate desire of admiration ;" the Logical predicate is 
u produces often a contemptible levity of deportment." All those circum- 
stances, qualifications, restrictions, &c, connected with either subject or 
predicate in whatever manner expressed, are called adjuncts. If a subject 
or predicate has no adjunct, it isincomplex, and there is no difference between 
the grammatical and the logical; as, life is short. But when a subject or 
predicate is combined with its adjuncts, it is then said to be complex, and 
the Grammatical and Logical subject or predicate must be distinguished as 
above. 

3. The adjuncts of a subject or predicate may be an adjective, participle, 
adverb, phrase, or a restrictive or descriptive proposition, joined with it by a 
relative or other conjunctive term. When the predicate is an active verb, 
then the noun or pronoun, or whatever else it governs as its object, with all 
that belongs to its construction in the sentence, is its adjunct, and is called 
the complement of the verb; and this like the subject or the predicate is 
grammatical or logical, complex or ineomplex, according as it consists ot 
single term, expressing a simple idea, or has other modifying adjuncts con- 
nected with it. 

In addition to the illustration of these principles by the examples already 
furnished, we may exemplify them in the following sentence from Cicero 
pro Arch. 1. 

" Omnes artes quaz ad humanitatem per tin ent^ habent quoddam commune vin- 
culum, et quasi cognatione quadam inter se continentur," " All the arts which 
pertain to civilization have a certain common bond, and are connected to- 
gether as it were by a certain affinity between them." 

The subject or thing here spoken of is artes, and of this two things are af- 
firmed. The sentence is, therefore, compound, having a simple subject 
and a compound predicate, and may, therefore, be resolved into two simple 
propositions ; thus, 

1. Omnes artes quoz humanitatem pertinent habent quoddam commune 
vinculum; and, 

2. Omnes m-tes qua, ad humanitatem pertinent quasi cognatione quadam 
inter se coniinentur. 

1. The first simple proposition may be analyzed thus, 

I. THE SUBJECT. Here the logical subject is " Omnes artes qua aa 
humanitatem pertinent." It is complex, containing the grammatical subject 
artes which is the nominative to the verb in the predicate, and, connected 
with it as adjuncts ; 1. the qualifying adjective omnes in concord with it ; 
and 2. the restrictive subordinate sentence, quoz ad humanitatem pertinent, 
restricting the meaning of artes by its relation to humanitatem. This re- 
strictive proposition is connected with artes by the relative quoz agreeing 
with i% and which, as it stands instead of the noun in the nominative case 
without an adjunct, is ineomplex, and is both the grammatical and logical 
subject of the proposition. Again, the logical predicate in this restrictive 
proposition is complex, consisting of the grammatical predicate pertinent, 
and its adjunct, ad humanitatem. 

II. THE PREDICATE. The logical predicate is, habent quoddam com- 
mune vinculum. It is complex, consisting of the grammatical predicate Aa- 



30S ANALYSIS AND TRANSLATION. § 2 19. 

bent agreeing with its nominative or subject artes, and having its object or 
complement vinculum under regimen in the accusative. This again is qua- 
lified by its adjunct quoddam commune, and these together make up the 
complex or.logical complement of the verb habent. 

2. The second simple sentence may be analyzed thus, 

I. THE SUBJECT. This is the same as in the first 

II. THE PREDICATE. The logical predicate here is quasi cognatione 
quadam inter se continentur. It is complex, consisting of the grammatical 
predicate continentur in the passive form, also agreeing with its subject or 
nominative artes, and a twofold adverbial adjunct expressing 1st. by the 
phrase cognatione quadam, the means by which the connexion predicated by 
continentur is effected, and that softened by the adverb of comparison quasi; 
and 2d. by the phrase inter se, expressing the manner of the connexion in- 
tended. 

Moreover these two simple sentences are combined into one compound 
sentence by the conjunctive particle et. — This mode of analysis may be em- 
ployed by the student in any sentence whether English, Latin, or Greek, 
and will generally be found a pleasant, as well as profitable exercise. 

Translation. 

From these remarks it is obvious that in translating a sentence it is ne- 
cessary first to analyze it, if a compound one, into the simple sentences of 
which it is composed, and then to translate them in their order. In pro- 
ceeding with the analysis of simple sentences the first thing necessary is to 
find the grammatical subject and predicate, i. e. the nominative and verb : 
on these all the other parts of the sentence depend. Except in the Oratio 
Obliqua, the subject or nominative will commonly be a noun or pronoun in 
the nominative case near the beginning of the sentence, and the predicate 
will generally be the verb in the indicative mood (or the imperative) agree- 
ing with the nominative in number and person, in any tense except the plu- 
perfect, which is almost always found in a subordinate clause. Having 
thus found the verb and its nominative, begin with the latter, and combine 
with it all its adjuncts, i. e. all words agreeing with it, governed by it, or de- 
pending upon it in any way, so as to make up the complete logical subject; 
and then, second, take the verb, and in like manner connect with it all words 
governed by it, depending upon it, or modifying it by circumstances of time, 
place, manner, &c. so as to make up the complete logical predicate and in 
this manner proceed with every simple sentence till the whole is completed. 



FIN 1 8. 



BULLIONS' 

SERIES OF GRAMMARS, 

ENGLISH, LATIN AND GREEK, 

ON THE SAME PLAN, 

FOR THE USE OF 

Colleges, Academies & Common Schools, 

(Published by Pratt, Woodford & Co., N. Y.) 

In preparing this series, the main object has been, First: 
To provide for the use of schools a set of class books on 
this important branch of study, more simple in their ar- 
rangement, more complete in their parts, and better adapted 
to the purposes of public instruction, than any heretofore in 
use in our public Seminaries : and Secondly, to give the 
whole a uniform character by following, in each, substan- 
tially, the same arrangement of parts, using the same 
grammatical terms, and expressing the definitions, rules, 
and leading parts, as nearly as the nature of the case 
would admit in the same language ; and thus to render the 
study of one Grammar a more profitable introduction to the 
study of another than it can be, when the books used dif- 
fer so widely from each other in their whole style and ar- 
rangement, as those now in use commonly do. By this 
means, it is believed, much time and labor will be saved, 
both to teacher and pupil, — the analogy and peculiarities 
of the 3ifTerent languages being constantly kept in view, will 
show what is common to all, or peculiar to each, — the confu- 
sion and difficulty unnecessarily occasioned by the use of 



elementary works, differing widely from each other in lan- 
guage and structure will be avoided, — and the progress of 
the student rendered much more rapid, easy and satis- 
factory. 

These works form a complete series of elementary 
books, in which the substance of the best Grammars in 
each language has been compressed into a volume of 
convenient size, handsomely printed on a fine paper, 
neatly and strongly bound, and at a moderate price. 
The whole series is now submitted to the judgment, of 
a discerning public, and especially to teachers and su- 
perintendents of schools, and seminaries of learning through- 
out the United States. 

The following notices and recommendations of the 
works separately, and of the series, both from individual? 
of the highest standing in the community, and from the 
public p ess, will furnish some idea of the plan pro- 
posed, and of the manner in which it has been executed 

I. THE PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Comprising the substance of the most approved English Grammars 
extant — with copious exercises in Parsing and Syntax. Fifth edition 
with an Appendix, of various and useful matter, pp. 216, 12 mo. New- 
York, Robinson, Pratt & Co. 

This work, on the plan of Murray's Grammar, has been prepared with 
much care, and with special reference to the wants of our Common 
Schools. It comprises in a condensed form, and expressed in plain and 
perspicuous language, all that is useful and important in the works of 
the latest and best writers on this subject, — *an advantage possessed in an 
equal degree by no similar work now in use. It is the result not only 
o^ much study and careful comparison, but of nearly twenty-five years 
experience in the school room, during which, the wants of the pupil 
and the character of books best adapted to those wants, have been care- 
fully noted ; and its adaptation to the purpose of instruction has now been 
thoroughly tested and approved in some of the best schools in this coun- 
try. It is beautifully printed on a fine strong paper, neatly and firmlj 



fround. and forms one of the most complete, useful, and economical school 
books ever offered to the public. The following are a few extracts from, 

NOTICES AND RECOMMENDATIONS. 

The undersigned have great satisfaction in recommending to the pub- 
lic, "The Principles of English Grammar," by Prof. Bullions, of th*j 
Albany Academy. Proceeding upon the plan of Murray, he has availed 
himself of the labors of the most distinguished grammarians, both at 
home and abroad ; and made such a happy use of the helps afforded him, 
that we know of no work of the kind, in the same compass, which is 
equal to it in point of merit. Among its many excellencies, it is not the 
least, that Prof. B. lias given a practical illustration of every principle 
from the beginning to the end ; and the possession of his Grammar en- 
tirely supersedes the necessity of procuring a separate volume of Exer- 
cises on the Rules of Syntax. In a word, we can truly say, in the lan- 
guage of the author, " that there is nothing of much importance in 
Murray's larger Grammar, or in the works of subsequent writers, that 
will not be found condensed here." 

John Ludlow, Alonzo Crittenton, 

Isaac Ferris, J. M. Garfield, 

Alfred. Conkling, , Robert McK.ee. 
T. Romeyn Beck. 
Albany, October 8. 1842. 



[An Extract from the Minutes of the Board of Trustees of the Al. 
bany Female Academy.] 
At a meeting of the trustees of the Albany Female Academy, held on 
the third instant, the book committee reported, that they had examined 
Professor Bullions' English Grammar, recently published in this city : 
and that in their opinion, it contains all that is useful in the most im- 
proved treatises now in use, as well as much valuable original matter : 
that from the copious exercises in false syntax, it will supersede the ne- 
cessity of a separate volume on that subject ; and recommend that it 
should be used as the text book in this institution. 

On motion, it was resolved, that the report of the committee be ac- 
cepted, and the treatise on English Grammar; by the Rev. Peter Bul- 
lions, adopted as the text book in this academy. 

An Extract from the Minutes. 

A. Crittenton, Secretary of the 
Board of Trustees, and 
Principal of the Academy. 
Albany, October 13, 1834. 

Sing Sing, November 1, 1834. 
Dear Sir — I have examined your English Grammar with no small 
degree of satisfaction ; and though I am not in the habit of recommend- 
ing books in this manner, I am constrained in this case to say, I think 
you have conferred another important favour on the cause of education 



The great defects of most of the English grammars now in use, particu- 
larly in the omission of many necessary definitions, or in the want of 
perspicuity in those given, and also in the rules of construction, are in a 
great measure happily supplied. I am so well pleased with the result of 
yom labors, that I have adopted it, (as I did your Greek (Jrammar) for 
both our institutions. Yours respectfully, 

Nathaniel S. Prime, Principal of 
Rev. P. Bullions, Mt. Pleasant Academy, 



The undersigned hold the responsibility of recommendation as an im- 
portant one — often abused, and very frequently used to obliged a per- 
sonal friend, or to get rid of an urgent applicant. They further appeal 
to their own conduct for years past, to show that they have only occa- 
sionally assumed this responsibility ; and therefore feel the greater confi- 
dence in venturing to recommend the examination, and the adoption of 
the Rev. Dr. Bullions' English Grammar, as at once the most concise 
and the most comprehensive of any with which they are acquainted ; as 
furnishing a satisfactory solution of nearly all the difficulties of the Eng- 
lish language ; as containing a full series of exercises in false syntax, 
with rules for their correction; and finally, that the arrangement is in 
every way calculated to carry the pupil from step to step in the success- 
ful acquisition of that most important end of education, the knowledge 
and use of the English language. GIDEON HAWLEY, 

T. ROMEYN BECK, 

March 1, 1842. JOHN A. DIX. 



A cursory examination of the English Grammar of Dr. Bullions, has 
satisfied me, that it has just claims on public favour. It is concise and 
simple ; the matter is well digested ; the exercises excellent, and the ty- 
pographical execution worthy of all praise. The subscriber takes plea- 
sure in recommending it to the notice of Teachers, and of all persons 
interested in education. ALON ZO POTTER. 

Union College, Sept. 6, 1842. 



The English Grammar of the Rev. Dr. Bullions, appears tome, to be 
the best manual which has appeared as yet. With all the good points 
of Murray, it has additions and emendations, which I cannot but think 
would have commended themselves to Murray himself, and if I were a 
teacher of English Grammar, I would without hesitation prefer it to any 
other book of the kind, JAMES W. ALEXANDER, 

Professor of Belles Leitres, College of N. J. 

Princeton, Aug, 15, 1842 



Extract of \a letter from Rev. Benjamin Hale, D.D., President of Ge 

neva College N. Y. 

Rev. Dr. Bullions. — Dear Sir — I have lately procured a copy of your 

English Grammar, and given it such attention as my time has permitted, 

and I do not hesitate to express my conviction, that it is entitled to higher 



uonfidence than any other English (iianiinar in U9Q among us, ami niv 
wish, that it may conic into general use, I have seen enough to latiafy 
me, that yon have diligently consulted the best goufcos, and combined 
vour materials with discrimination and judgmont. \\V have, as :» fttoul 
ty, recommended it hy placing it on the list of books io he uaad 1>\ cm 
didates in preparation for this college. I have personally recommended 
it, and will continue to recommend it, as 1 have opportunity, 

Very respectfully, dear air, youi Mend, «v> 

BENJAMIN HALE 

Geneva College, July 13, 1H12- 



Extract of a letter from AV«. CYRUS MlSON, l>.l>, RtCtOr of ''the (Unimnuir 
School in the Univnsifi/ of I\<in Vo/A. 

Ihnvrrsi/i/,' Ncw-Yoi -A-, Jum L3tA, L848 
Hkv. Da. Bullions.— Dear Sii Ai the iiiggeition of ths lata Mr. 
Leckie, head classical master in the Grammar School, w«* began to In 
troduce your grarajriari at the opening of the present \<>< Wi have 
made use chiefly of the Greek and English Grammar, Tha «« ult thus 
far is a convictk.1 thai we have profited by the change, whioh i WM 
very slow to make ; and I doubt not that ouj farther experience will oon 
firm the good opinion we entertain of youi labors In thii dopartmanl of 
learning. Wiininj you ; ( large reward, I remain, verj truli yours, 

C ima: on. Rtctor* 

NOTICES PROM THE PUBLIC PRESS, 

Prom a Report presented to tub JnrFBiiiOfl Co aLmo- 
(iaiiun of T&AOuiae, on the Engliah Grammar 8 now %n 
//.vr, ///( merits of each, and i he bent met had of teaching 
tkvm. By the Rev, J. I*. Boyd, Prinolpal of Blaoli Rl 
ver Institute, 

11 2. The Gramma] by Prof Bullion! of the Albany a... 
demy, ii constructed on the same plan ai thai ol Brown) 
;ih(j w bile ii it not i o oopioui In lit exercises, noi i •> full "> 
atiom upon the languagt , y6\ li Ii fai moi «• simple 
in it- j.fir.;- (-,!<,- v "!-.) < r;ioai in its ar> .m;;' "'« iii , ni«.i » free 
.: pi fj om erron oi I hingi in i ding Impi ovt mi ni , and ai 
the - ame lime contains -ill thai ii net i ■■•»» y to bes h •«» m d "■ 
mining a I ■ -■< I he structure ol oui languagt The 

Ilulei ol 8j ntan and obi i i •• atiom uri<i< i tin m, m « ■ ■> |>i * • *' 
i /ally in the b< ii mann< i The v« rb li moel vivialy ex 
plained, and thai portion ol thi work contain* much nol to 
M (bund in otht i grammar! h hill li j 1 " 1 " lout \y omits •> 
great deal to be found in thi rn, thai li unworthy " ! "»" rtlon, 
M it le exeelleni upon Proeody, and upon Poetic LMotJon 



6 

and gives an admirable summary of directions for correct 
and elegant writing, and the different forms of composition. 
The typography of the book cannot be too highly commended 
—a circumstance that greatly affects the comfort and improve- 
ment of the learner. 

" This grammar is equally well adapted to the beginner 
and to the advanced scholar. The course of instruction 
which Prof. B. recommends in the use of his grammar, 
seems wisely adapted to secure in the readiest manner the 
improvement of the pupil. The book is not so large as to 
appal the beginner, nor so small as to be of little use to those 
advanced. On the w r hole, in my judgment, no work has yet 
appeared, which presents equally high claims to general use. 
It is copious without redundancy — it is well printed, and 
forms a volume pleasing to the eye. It is lucid and simple, 
while in the main, it is philosophically exact. — Among the 
old Grammars, our decided preference is given to that of 
Prof. Bullions." 

[From the Albany Argus.] 

Principles of English Grammar. — This work besides containing a 
full system of grammar, is rendered more immediately useful for acade- 
mies and common schools, by containing copious examples in good gram- 
mar for parsing, and in bad grammar for correction ; and all of these are 
arranged directly under the jule to which they apply. Thus, instead of 
two books, which are required, (the grammar and the exercises,) the 
learner finds both in one, for a price at least not greater than the others. 

[From the Nevvburgh Journal.] 
Bullions' English Grammar. — It is not one of the smallest evils con- 
nected with our present system of common school education, that our 
schools are flooded with such a variety of books on elementary subjects, 
not only differing in arrangement, but frequently involving absurd and 
contradictory principles. And to no subject are these remarks more ap- 
plicable, than to English Grammar. And until some one elementary 
work of an approved character shall be generally introduced into our 
common schools, we despair of realizing a general proficiency in this 
important branch of education, It is with pleasure, therefore, that we 
witness the increasing popularity of " Bullions' English Grammar." 
From a familiar acquaintance with the work, from the publication of 
the first edition, we have no hesitation in pronouncing it the best Gram- 
mar with which we are acquainted. The perspicuity of its definitions, 
the correctness of its principles, the symmetry of its arrangements, as 
well as the neat and accurate form in which it is presented, and withal 
the cheapness of the work, are so many recommendations to its general use 



[From the Albany Evening Journal.J 

Professor Bullions' English Grammar is obviously the fruit ot sound 
and enlightened judgment, patient labor and close reflection. It partakes 
of the character both of an original work and of a compilation. Fol- 
lowing the principles of Murray, and adopting in the main the plan of 
Lennie, the most distinguished of his successors, the aim of the author, 
as he states in his preface, has been to correct wkat is erroneous, to re. 
trench what is superfluous or unimportant, to compress what is prolix, to 
elucidate what is obscure, and to determine what is left doubtful, in the 
books already in use. In laboring to accomplish this excellent design, he 
lias contrived to condense, in very perspicuous language, within the 
compass of a small, handsomely printed volume, about 200 pages, and 
costing but 50 cents, all that is requisite in this form to the acquisition 
of a thorough knowledge of the grammar of our language. It contains 
so great a number of exercises in parsing and syntax, judiciously inter- 
spersed, as to supersede the necessity of separate manuals of exercises 
now in use. Among other highly useful things to be found in this book, 
and not usually met with in works of this nature, are some very valua. 
ble critical remarks, and a pretty long "list of improper expressions," 
which unhappily have crept into use in different parts of our country. 
Under the head of Prosody, the author has, it is believed, given a bet- 
ter explanation of the principles of English versification, than is to be 
found in any other work of this nature in this country. In short, I 
hazard the prediction that this will be found to be decidedly the plainest, 
most perfect, and most useful manual of English grammar that has yet 
appeared. Z. 

EXTRACTS FROM LETTERS. 

The following, are extracts from letters from County Su- 
perintendents of Common Schools in the State of New-York, 
to whom copies of the work had been sent for examination. 
From Alexander Fonda, Esq. Dep. Supt, of Com. Schools, Schenectady Co, 

Schenectady, March 30, 1842. 

Dear Sir — I acknowledge the receipt of a copy of your English 
Grammar, left upon my office desk yesterday afternoon. When in your 
city some three weeks since, I was presented with a copy by S, S. Ran- 
dall, Esq. ; from the examination I was enabled to give it, and from the 
opinion expressed in relation to it, by one of the oldest and most ex- 
perienced teachers of this county, to whom I presented it, as well as 
from the knowledge I possessed by reputation of its author, I had before 
I received the copy from you, determined to introduce it as far as I was 
able, as a class book in the schools of this county. 

From Chauncey Goodrich, Esq. Dep. Supt. of Com. Schools, Onondaga Co 

Canal, June 24, 1842. 
Dear Sir — Your favor of the 1st instant has just come to hand. The 
Grammar referred to has been received and examined. I am fully sa 
tisfied of its superior merits as a grammar for common schools, over any 



8 

other work I have seen. I shall take the earliest measures for its mtrt»» 
duetion into^the schools under my supervision. 

From Roswell K. Bourne, Esq. Dep. Supt. of Com. Schools, Chenango C* 

Pitcher, June 30. 1842. 
Dear Sir — Some time since I received a copy of a work on English gram. 
mar, by the Rev. Peter Bullions, D.D. for which I am much obliged. 1 
have given the book as close an examination as circumstances would 
permit. The book is well got up, and exhibits the thorough acquaint- 
ance of the author with his subject. I think it well calculated for our 
common schools. 

From Garnsey Beach, Esq. Dep. Suvt. of Common Schools, Putnam Co, 

Patterson, July 2, 1842. 

Dear Sir — Yours of the first ult, was received on Thursday last. As 
it respects your Grammar I have carefully examined it, and without en- 
tering into particulars, I consider it the best I have ever seen, and as 
such, I have recommended it to the several schools under my care. 
From O. W. Randall, Esq. Dep. Supt. of Common Schools, Oswego Co. 

Phop.nix, July 2, 1842. 

Mr. P. Bullions, — Dear Sir — I have for the last two weeks devoted 
some considerable time, in perusing your system of English Grammar, 
and in reply to yours, requesting my views of the work, I can cheer- 
fully say, that its general arrangment, is admirably adapted either to the 
novice or adept. The § 27th and § 28th on verbs, with the attendant remarks, 
are highly important, and essential to the full completion of any system 
of grammar. The work taken together is remarkable for simplicity, 
lucidity and exactness, and is calculated not only to make the correct 
grammarian, but also a correct prosodian. Whatever may be its fate in 
the field, it enters wilh a large share of merit on its side, and with full 
as fair prospect of success as any work extant. 

From W. S. Preston, Esq. Dep- Supt. of Com Schools, Suffolk Co. N, Y. 

Patchogue, L. I. July 6, 1842. 
Prof. P. Bullions, — Dear Sir — Some time since I received a copy of 
your English Grammar, for which I am much obliged. I have devoted 
as much time to its perusal as circumstances would permit, and can say 
of it, that I believe it claims decided pn ference over the Grammars ge- 
nerally used in schools throughout this country, and indeed I may say, 
over the many works on that science extant. 

From James Henry, Esq. Dep. Supt, of Common Schools, Herkimer Co, 

Little-Falls, July 11, 1842. 

Prof. Bullions, — Sir — I have read with as much attention as my avo- 
cations would allow, the work you had the kindness to send me, upon 
English Grammar, and so far as I am capable of forming an opinion of 
the merits of your book, I concur generally in the views expressed in 
the extract from the report of M Boyd, as contained in your circular. 



9 

From V. H. Stevens, Dep. SupU of Common Schools, Franklin Co. N. Y, 

Moira, Aug. 27, 1842. 
Rev. P. Bullions, — Dear Sir — On Wednesday the 24th instant, the 
committee determined upon a series of books, and I have the happiness 
to inform you, that your English Grammar will be reported on the first 
Wednesday in October at the next meeting of the Association, 'as the 
most brief, perspicuous and philosophical work, upon that subject within 
our knowledge. 

From R. W. Finch, Esq. Dep. Supi. of Common Schools. Steuben Co. N. F* 

Bath, Sept. 11, 1842. 
• Dear Sir — Having at length given your English Grammar a careful 
perusal; and having compared it with all the modern works on the sub- 
ject, which have any considerable claims to merit, I am prepared to make 
a more enlightened decision, and one that is satisfactory to myself. The 
work has my decided preference. 

From J. W. Fairfield, and Cykus Curtiss, Esqrs. Dep. Superintendents 
of Common Schools, Hudson, N, Y. 

Hudson, Sept. 15, 1842. 
Rev. P. Bullions, — Sir — We have examined a copy of your English 
Grammar, with reference to the introduction of the same into our pub- 
lic schools, and we take pleasure in saying that the examination has 
proved very satisfactory. We cannot, without occupying too much 
space, specify the particular points of excellence which we noticed in 
the arrangement of the different parts, the clearness of expression and 
illustration, and the precise adaptation of the Rules of Syntax, to the 
principles previously laid down. It is sufficient to say, that we believe 
it to be, in ali the requisites of a good school book, superior to any other 
English Grammar which has come under our observation. 

II. THE PRINCIPLES OF LATIN GRAMMAR, &c. 

This work is upon the foundation of Adam's Latin Grammar, so long 
and so well known as a text book in this country. The object aimed at 
was to combine with all that is excellent in the work of Adam, the im- 
portant results of subsequent labors in this field, — to correct errors and 
supply defects, — to bring the whole up to that point which the present 
state of classical learning requires, — and to give it such a form as to ren- 
der it a suitable part of the series. The following notices are furnished. 

From Rev. James W t . Alexander, Prof. Belles Lettres in the College of 
New- Jersey. 

Princeton, N. J. Aug. 15, 1842. 

1 have examined with some care the Latin Grammar of the Rev. Dr. 
Bullions. It is, if I may hazard a judgment, a most valuable work, 
evincing that peculiar apprehension of the pupil's necessities, which 
nothing but long continued practice as an instructor can produce. Among 
our various Latin Grammars, it deserves the place which is occupied by 
the best ; and no teacher, as I think, need hesitate a moment about in 
troducing it 



10 

[From the Biblical Repertory, or Princeton Review, Jan. 1842.., 
The Principles of Latin Grammar, &c. — This completes the series 
proposed by the learned author, who has now furnished us with an Eng. 
hsh, a Latin, and a Greek Grammar, which have this peculiar recom- 
mendation that they are arranged in the same order, and expressed in 
the same terms, so far as the differences of the languages permit. The 
basis of this manual is the well known Grammar of Adam, an excellent 
summary, but at the same time one which adm ited of retrenchment, ad- 
dition, and emendation, all which have been ably furnished by Dr. Bui 
lions- We have not made a business of perusing the work laboriously, 
but we have looked over the whole and bestowed particular attention on 
certain parts ; and therefore feed at liberty to recommend it with great 
confidence, especially to all such teachers as have been in the habit of 
using Adam's Grammar. 

III. THE PRINCIPLES OF GREEK GRAMMAR, &c. 

The object of this publication was to provide a comprehensive manual 
of Greek Grammar, adapted to the use of the younger, as well as to the 
more advanced class of students in our schools and colleges, and espe 
cially of those under the author's own care. To this end, the leading 
principles of Greek Grammar are exhibited in rules as few and brief as 
possible, so as to be easily committed to memory, and at the same time 
so comprehensive and perspicuous, as to be of general and easy applicat ; ^n. 

The following notices of this work, from different sources, will show 
the estimate formed of it by competent judges. 

Bullions' Greek Grammar. — We have examined the second edition 
of Dr. Bullions' Greek Grammar, and consider it, upon the whole, the 
best grammar of the Greek language with which we are acquainted 
The parts to be committed to memory are both concise and comprehen 
sive ; the illustrations are full without prolixity, and the arrangement na- 
tural and judicious. The present edition is considerably reduced in size 
from the former, without, as we apprehend, at all impairing its value. 

It discovers in its compilation much labor and research, as well as 
sound judgment. We are persuaded that, the general use of it in oirr 
grammar schools and academies would facilitate the acquisition of a 
thorough knowledge of the language. Judicious teachers pursuing the 
plan marked out by the author in his preface, would usually conduct 
their pupils to a competent knowledge of the language in a less time by 
several months than by the systems formerly in use. We therefore give 
it our cordial recommendation. ELIPHALET NOTT, 

R. PROUD FfT, 

Union College, December 19, 1840. ALONZO POTTER. 

Extract of a letter from Rev. Daniel D. Whedon, A.M. Professor of An 
dent Languages and Literature, in the Wesleyan University, Middleton, Ct. 

Wesley an University, March. 29, . 1842. 

Rev. Dr. Bullions, — Dear Sir — Although I have not vhe honor of 



11 

your personal acquaintance, I take the liberty of addressing to you my 
thanKs for your excellent Greek Grammar. Nothwithstanding many 
personal, urgent, and interested appeals in favor of other grammars — and 
our literary market seems to abound with that kind of stock — the in- 
trinsic superiority of your manual over every rival, induced me. after I 
saw your last edition, to adopt it in the Greek department of the Wes- 
levan University, and the success of my present Freshman class, amply 
justifies the course. 

Extract cf a letter from Henry Bannister, A.M. Principal of the Academy 
in Fairfield, N. Y. 

Fairfield Academy, May 12, 1842. 
Rev. Doct. Bullions, — Sir — Sometime since I received your English 
and Greek Grammar, of each, one copy ; and, if it is not too late, I 
would now return you my sincere thanks. I have not found in any work, 
suitable for a text book in schools, an analysis of the verb so strictly 
philosophical, and at the same time so easy to the learner to master and 
to retain when mastered, as that contained in your work. The editorial 
observations on government, and indeed the whole matter and arrange- 
ment of the Syntax, especially commend your work to general use in 

schools. 

[From the Princeton Review, for Jan. 1840.] 
• It is with pleasure we welcome a second edition of this manual, which 
we continue to regard as still unsurpassed by any similar work in our 
language. Tiie typography and the quality of the paper are uncommon- 
ly goo J. We observe valuable additions and alterations. For all that we 
can see, everything worth knowing in Thiersch is here condensed into a 
few pages. We have certainly never seen the anatomy of the Greek 
verb so neatly demonstrated. The Syntax is full, and presents the lead- 
ing facts and principles, by rules, so as to be easily committed to mem- 
ory. To learners who are beginning the language, and especially to 
teachers of grammar schools, we earnestly recommend this book. 



[From the New- York Observer.] 
Bullions' Principles of Greek Grammar, &c. 2d edition. With 
pleasure we hail the second edition of this valuable work, and are happy 
to find that the revision which it has undergone has resulted in decided 
improvements. Formed, as it is, on the basis of that most symmetrical 
of all modern grammars. Dr. Moor's Greek Grammar, which its learned 
author never Jived to complete. It is now made to embrace not only the 
general rules, but all the minutia essential to a critical knowledge of 
that ancient and elegant language. One of the chief excellencies of this 
model, and one that is fully retained in this grammar, is to be found in 
the simplicity, perspicuity, conciseness, and yet fulness of the definitions 
and rules for the various modifications of the language. The sense is 
clearly expressed, while scarcely a particle is used that could have been 
dispensed with. We have no hesitation in expressing the opinion, thaf 
Dr. B. has produced the most compietejknd useful Greek grammar thi 
is to be found in the English language. 



12 

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SERIES. 

From the Rev. John Ludlow, D.D. Provost of the University of Penn. 

No one I think can ever examine the series of Grammars published by 
Dr. Bullions, without a deep conviction of their superior excellence. 
When the English Grammar, the first in the series, was published in 
1834. it was my pleasure, in connexion with some honored individuals, 
in the city of Albany, to bear the highest testimony to its worth ; that 
testimony, if I mistake not, received the unanimous approval of all 
whose judgment can or ought to influence public opinion. I have seen, 
with great gratification, that the 2d and 3d in the series, the Latin and 
Greek, have met with the same favorable judgement, which I believe to 
be entirely deserved, and in which I do most heartily concur. 

From the Hon. Alfred Conkling, Judge of the United States Court in tht 
Northern District of New- York, published in the Cayuga Patriot. 

Bullions' Series of Grammars. — By the recent publication of «* The 
Principles of Latin Grammar," this series of grammars (English, Latin, 
and Greek.) is at length completed. To their preparation, Dr. Bullions 
has devoted many years of the best portion of his life. In the composi- 
tion of these books, he has shown an intimate acquaintance w T ith the works 
of his ablest predecessors; and while upon the one hand, he has not scru- 
pled freely to avail himself of their labors, on the other hand, by studi- 
ously avoiding all that is objectionable in them, and by re-modelling, im- 
proving, and illustrating the rest, he has unquestionably succeeded in con- 
structing the best — decidedly the very best — grammar, in each of the 
three above named languages, that has yet appeared. Such is the deli- 
berate and impartial judgment which has been repeatedly expressed by 
the most competent judges, respecting the English and Greek grammars; 
and such, I hesitate not to believe, will be the judgment formed of the 
Latin grammar. But independently of the superiority of these works 
separately considered, they possess, collectively, the great additional re- 
commendation of having their leading parts arranged in the same o?-der, 
and, as far as properly can be done, expressed in the same language. An 
acquaintance with one of them, therefore, cannot fail greatly to facilitate 
the study of another, and at the same time, by directing the attention of 
the student distinctly to the points of agreement and of difference in the 
several languages, to render his acquisitions more accurate, and at the 
same time to give him clearer and more comprehensive views of the 
general principles of language. The importance of using in academies 
and schools of the United States none but ably written and unexcep 
tionable school books, is incalculable ; and without intending unnecessa- 
rdy to depreciate the labors of others, as a friend of sound education, I 
cannot refrain from expressing an earnest hope of seeing this series of 
grammars in general use. They are all beautifully printed on very good 
paper, and are sold at very reasonable prices. 



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